Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Cox, R. J., Nol, P., Ellis, C. K. et al. 2019. Research with agricultural animals and wildlife. ILAR Journal 60(1), 66-73.

In fiscal year 2016, agricultural animals such as swine, sheep, goats, and cattle represented 10% of the 820 812 animals used in USDA-regulated research. In addition to traditional agricultural animals, research studies using captive wildlife...

Wooddell, L. J., Beisner, B., Hannibal, Darcy L. et al. 2019. Increased produce enrichment reduces trauma in socially-housed captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 81(12), e23073.

Due to primate adaptations for sociality, captive rhesus macaques have optimal welfare and utility as a biomedical model when they can be maintained in outdoor social groups. As a despotic species; however, aggression can result...

Descovich, K. A., Richmond, S. E., Leach, M. C. et al. 2019. Opportunities for refinement in neuroscience: Indicators of wellness and post-operative pain in laboratory macaques. Alternatives to Animal Experimentation 36(4), 535-554.

Being able to assess pain in nonhuman primates undergoing biomedical procedures is important for preventing and alleviating pain, and for developing better guidelines to minimize the impacts of research on welfare in line with the...

Mason, S., Premereur, E., Pelekanos, V. et al. 2019. Effective chair training methods for neuroscience research involving rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Neuroscience Methods 317, 82-93.

Background: Neuroscience research using macaques remains fundamental in our endeavours to understand how the human brain functions. Applying the refinement principle of the 3Rs is essential to optimise the monkeys’ welfare and still produces high...

Funkhouser, J. A., Mayhew, J. A., Mulcahy, J. B. 2018. Social network and dominance hierarchy analyses at Chimpanzee Sanctuary Northwest. PLOS ONE 13(2), e0191898.

Different aspects of sociality bear considerable weight on the individual- and group-level welfare of captive nonhuman primates. Social Network Analysis (SNA) is a useful tool for gaining a holistic understanding of the dynamic social relationships...

Stammen, R. L., Cohen, J. K., Meeker, T. L. et al. 2018. Effect of chronic social stress on prenatal transfer of antitetanus immunity in captive breeding rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). JAALAS 57(4), 357-367.

Because tetanus can cause significant morbidity and mortality in NHP, colonywide vaccination with tetanus toxoid is recommended for outdoor breeding colonies of rhesus macaques, with primary immunizations commonly given to infants at 6 mo of...

Hannibal, D. L., Cassidy, L. C.,Vandeleest, J. et al. 2018. Intermittent pair-housing, pair relationship qualities, and HPA activity in adult female rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 80(5), e22762.

Laboratory rhesus macaques are often housed in pairs and may be temporarily or permanently separated for research, health, or management reasons. While both long‐term social separations and introductions can stimulate a stress response that impacts...

Yamanashi, Y., Teramoto, M., Morimura, N. et al. 2018. Social relationship and hair cortisol level in captive male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Primates 59(2) 145-152.

Understanding how social relationships affect long-term stress is important because stress has a profound impact on the welfare of animals and social relationships often exert a strong influence on their stress responses. The purpose of...

Coke, C., Skoumbourdis, E., Rodgers, J. C. et al. 2018. Blunting/cutting canines of adult male monkeys: A discussion by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology & Welfare 17(2), 105-107.

"When you keep adult Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) males, adult Cynomolgus (Macaca fascicularis) males or adult Vervet males (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), in the same enclosure, is it advisable to have the canines of the males blunted...

Zomeño, C., Birolo, M., Gratta, F. et al. 2018. Effects of group housing system, pen floor type, and lactation management on performance and behaviour in rabbit does. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 203, 55-63.

This work aimed at evaluating the effects of housing system, pen floor type, and lactation management on rabbit doe and kit performance throughout a reproductive cycle, including categorization of aggressiveness and injuries. Forty multiparous pregnant...

Duarte, R. B., Maior, R. S., Barros, M. 2018. Behavioral and cortisol responses of adult marmoset monkeys (Callithrix penicillata) to different home-cage social disruption intervals. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 201, 117-124.

Social separation is an increasingly used strategy to experimentally assess psychogenic stress in nonhuman primates, yet it is also inherently required for captive management. Surprisingly, little is known on the effects of an individual left...

Yamanashi, Y., Nogami, E. Teramoto, M. et al. 2018. Adult-adult social play in captive chimpanzees: Is it indicative of positive animal welfare? Applied Animal Behaviour Science 199, 75-83.

Play is sometimes considered as an indicator of positive animal welfare. However, it is not yet sufficiently understood whether or not social play among adults can be considered as such an indicator because it is...

Moomaw, H., Abney, D., Duffy, A. et al. 2018. A successful strategy for social housing adult male cynomolgus macaques in triads. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 31-32 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #62).

At Charles River, we are committed to ensuring all animals have the highest level of care and welfare. For juvenile, subadult and adult female cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis), we have a near 100% success rate...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2018. Behavioral predictors of successful pairing of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) at the visual contact phase of social introduction. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 32 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #65).

Identification of behaviors early in the process of rhesus macaque social introductions that might predict social housing success would allow primate managers to best allocate resources and minimize animal stress by aborting introductions unlikely to...

Crast, J., Seelig, D., Meeker, T. L. et al. 2018. Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) groups with more non-natal adult males per adult female have lower rates of aggression-induced trauma and greater reproductive success. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 45 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #140).

Limiting contact aggression and social stress is a principal animal welfare challenge in managing large groups of captive nonhuman primates. This challenge is especially pronounced in rhesus monkeys (macaca mulatta), a species characterized by a...

Heagerty, A. L., Coleman, K. 2018. Amount and reciprocity of affiliative behaviors can predict pairing success in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 47 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #148).

Socialization is one of the most important forms of enrichment for rhesus macaques. However, pair introductions can result in aggression and injury if partners are incompatible, even days after the initial introduction. Identifying predictors of...

Hanniba, D., Beisner, B., Nathman, A. et al. 2018. Removals based on low within-matriline relatedness can reduce severe aggression in captive rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 48 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #151).

Previous observational research of captive rhesus macaques suggests that higher coefficients of relatedness within matrilines are associated with lower rates of severe within‐matriline aggression and more cohesive grooming communities. We tested whether experimental removals targeted...

Balasubramaniam, K. N., Beisner, B. A., Vandeleest, J. J. et al. 2018. Social buffering and contact transmission: Network connections have beneficial and detrimental effects on Shigella infection risk among captive rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 51-52 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #162).

Group living in primates may impact the risk of pathogen acquisition in two ways. First, social connectedness makes individuals more susceptible to pathogens via contact‐mediated transmission. Yet in strongly bonded societies, having close connections and...

Hempstead, M. N., Waas, J. R., Stewart, M. et al. 2018. Evaluation of alternatives to cautery disbudding of dairy goat kids using behavioural measures of post-treatment pain. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 206, 32-38.

Alternatives to cautery disbudding (caustic paste and cryosurgical disbudding, and clove oil injection) were evaluated using behavioural measures of post-treatment pain in dairy goat kids. Fifty Saanen doe kids were randomly assigned to one of...

Rox, A., de Vries, H., Louwerse, A. L. et al. 2018. Female social behaviour during three male introductions in captive groups of rhesus macaques. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 207, 89-97.

Introductions of new males into captive primate groups are often necessary to prevent inbreeding, but also bear high social risks. To minimize these risks, it is crucial to understand the social behaviour accompanying male introductions...

Thurston, S., Burlingame, L., Lester, P. A. et al. 2018. Methods of pairing and pair maintenance of New Zealand white rabbits (Oryctolagus Cuniculus) via behavioral ethogram, monitoring, and interventions. JoVE (Journal of Visualized Experiments) 133, e57267.

Though European rabbits are a social species, socially housing them can be challenging. Therefore, there must be a thorough understanding of behaviors and social structures of pair-housed laboratory rabbits. Here we present a protocol to...

McCowan, B., Beisner, B., Hannibal, D. 2018. Social management of laboratory rhesus macaques housed in large groups using a network approach: A review. Behavioural Processes 156, 77-82.

Biomedical facilities across the nation and worldwide aim to develop cost-effective methods for the reproductive management of macaque breeding groups, typically by housing macaques in large, multi-male multi-female social groups that provide monkey subjects for...

Ekanayake-Alper,D. K., Wilson, S. R., Scholz, J. A. 2018. Retrospective review of surgical outcomes and pair-housing success in vasectomized rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Comparative Medicine 68(2), 168–176.

Providing social housing for adult male macaques can be challenging. One successful strategy for long-term social housing of adult male macaques is to pair them with adult females; however, unwanted breeding must be prevented by...

De, K., Saxena, V. K., Balaganur, K. et al. 2018. Effect of short-term seclusion of sheep on their welfare indicators. Journal of Veterinary Behavior 27, 1-7.

Separation from the group is a potent stressor for sheep and may have an adverse effect on animal welfare. Therefore, the present study was initiated to determine the effect of short-term seclusion of sheep on...

Benedict, D., Megrath, B. 2018. Upgrades to nonhuman primate tethered infusion system. Laboratory Animal Science Professional 6(3) (September), 62-64.

Continuous tethered infusions in any animal model pose a unique set of problems. These problems are amplified when nonhuman primates are the model. A high tolerance to the tether system by an animal model is...