Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Meder, A. 1992. Effects of the environment on the behaviour of lowland gorillas in zoos. Primate Report 32, 167-183.

The purpose of this study was to observe as many gorilla groups as possible and to compare their behaviour in different exhibits, social structures and visitor situation. Gorillas were studied in 15 zoos, they lived...

Johnstone-Scott, R. 1992. The integration of Julia. International Zoo News 39(6), 18-26.

Successful integration procedure of an adult female gorilla into an established breeding group is described.

Brent, L. 1992. Woodchip bedding as enrichment for captive chimpanzees in an outdoor enclosure. Animal Welfare 1(3), 161-170.

The use of woodchips as bedding for 16 juvenile chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) was evaluated for the effects on behaviour, health and husbandry practices. Woodchip bedding was placed in two outdoor play areas for five consecutive...

Bayne, K., Dexter, S. L., Mainzer H et al. 1992. The use of artificial turf as a foraging substrate for individually housed rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 1, 39-53.

In this study artificial turf was used as the substrate for a particulate food given to the subjects as an environmental enrichment technique. When their cages were not enriched, eight single-caged subjects exhibited abnormal behaviors...

Ruppenthal, G. C., Walker, C. G., Sackett, G. P. 1991. Rearing infant monkeys (Macaca nemestrina) in pairs produces deficient social development compared with rearing in single cages. American Journal of Primatology 25, 103-113.

Many scientists and colony managers assume that social housing is a beneficial living condition for all captive primates. Several older studies of primate development question the generality of this assumption. We recently tested this assumption...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 1991. Impact of a privacy panel on the behavior of caged female rhesus monkeys living in pairs. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34(2), 55-58.

Thirty paired female rhesus monkeys were tested in a control situation when companions had no privacy, and in an experimental situation when they were offered the option to move behind a panel and be alone...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D., Eisele, S. 1991. Serum cortisol concentrations of single-housed and isosexually pair-housed adult rhesus macaques. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34(2), 73-76.

Possible social distress was evaluated in 20 adult rhesus macaques housed in compatible isosexual pairs (5 female pairs, 5 male pairs) for the purpose of social environmental enrichment. Serum cortisol concentrations of paired animals were...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Social enrichment for aged rhesus monkeys who have lived singly for many years. Animal Technology 43, 173-177.

There is widespread concern that aged rhesus monkeys who have been housed singly for a long time would do better living alone than sharing a cage with a companion. Ten female and five male rhesus...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Group formation of previously single-caged adult rhesus macaques for the purpose of environmental enrichment. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34, 110-115.

An attempt was made to form two groups of 6 previously single-caged adult female and 6 previously single-caged adult male rhesus macaques. The study was based on the premise that simultaneous introduction of familiar animals...

Pough, F. H. 1991. Recommendations for the care of amphibians and reptiles in academic institutions. ILAR Journal 33(4), S1-S21.

Amphibians and reptiles differ in many respects from the mammals and birds most commonly used in biomedical research. These differences affect the physical and biological requirements of amphibians and reptiles in captivity. In this contribution...

Love, J. A., Hammond, K. 1991. Group-housing rabbits. Lab Animal 20(8), 37-43.

The management and success of a group-housing indoor/outdoor pen system for rabbits [mainly females] is described and discussed. Over a three-year study period a total of 141,000 rabbits were included in the assessment. The levels...

Poole, T. B. 1990. Environmental enrichment for marmosets. Animal Technology 41(2), 81-86.

Marmosets are among the easiest of primates to provide with environmental enrichment. Like other higher primates, they need companionship, adequate space with incorporated complexity, some unpredictability in the environment, ways in which they can manipulate...

Burt, D. A., Plant, M. 1990. Observations on a caging system for housing stump-tailed macaques. Animal Technology 41, 175-179.

This paper describes the introduction of a modified caging system and the benefits to both the animals and staff. The removal of metal grids at the bottom of the cage, and the introduction of direct...

Reinhardt, V., Houser, W. D., Cowley, D. et al. 1989. Alternatives to single caging of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) used in research. Zeitschrift für Versuchstierkunde [Journal of Experimental Animal Science] 32, 275-279.

Single-housed rhesus macaques were transferred to permanent pair-housing arrangements. The present investigation also demonstrates that pairing caged rhesus monkeys with compatible conspecifics does not interfere with a number of common research protocols [e.g., headcap implantation...

Reinhardt, V. , Dodsworth, R. 1989. Facilitated socialization of previously singly caged adult rhesus macaques (videotape with accompanying text). Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center. Available on loan from Animal Care Audio-Visual Materials, WRPRC, 1220 Capitol Court, Madison, WI 53715, USA, Madison, WI.

Thirty scenes depict different adult rhesus monkeys [and one adult, male stump-tailed macaque], each paired with a compatible companion for up to two years. The following pair combinations and research situations are shown: adult male/male...

Reinhardt, V. 1989. Alternatives to single caging of rhesus monkeys. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 3, 123-125.

Single-housed rhesus macaques were transferred to permanent pair-housing arrangements. The present investigation also demonstrates that pairing caged rhesus monkeys with compatible conspecifics does not interfere with a number of common research protocols [e.g., headcap implantation...

Fajzi, K., Reinhardt, V., Smith, M. D. 1989. A review of environmental enrichment strategies for singly-caged nonhuman primates. Lab Animal 18(2), 23-35.

Comprehensive literature review dealing with the following topics: a) Group housing versus single housing; b) Enrichment strategies using inanimate objects; c) Socialization with conspecifics; d) Role of animal care staff.

Reinhardt, V., Houser, W. D., Eisele, S. et al. 1987. Social enrichment of the environment with infants for singly caged adult rhesus monkeys. Zoo Biology 6, 365-371.

Twenty-nine weaned rhesus monkey infants were removed from breeding troops to avoid overcrowding and were placed with unfamiliar singly caged adults without prior familiarization. Adult-infant pairs were compatible in 90% of cases. Compatibility depended neither...

O'Neill, P. L. 1987. Enriching the lives of primates in captivity. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 1, 1-5.

A summary of basic environmental enrichement for group-housed rhesus macaques. The essence of the social primate is lost under the stresses of the nonsocial condition.

Heger, W., Merker, H.-J., Neubert, D. 1986. Low light intensity decreases the fertility of Callithrix jacchus. Primate Report 14, 260 (Abstract).

Improvement of the light fixtures in both rooms doubled the lighting force and increased the breeding rate during the following 12 months approximately 20% in the upper and 130% in the lower cages.

Anderson, J. R. , Chamove, A. S. 1984. Allowing captive primates to forage. In: Standards in Laboratory Animal Management. Proceedings of a Symposium. 253-256. The Universities Federation For Animal Welfare, Potters Bar, UK.

A woodchip litter substrate reduces abnormal behaviours, primarily self-aggression, and encourages foraging, even in the absence of grain. Comparison between the bare floor and litter with grain showed that in the latter monkeys foraged more...

Chamove, A. S., Anderson, J. R., Morgan-Jones, S. C. et al. 1982. Deep woodchip litter: Hygiene, feeding, and behavioral enhancement in eight primate species. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 3, 308-318.

Sixty-seven animals from eight primate species were used to assess improved husbandry techniques. The presence of woodchips as a direct-contact litter decreased inactivity and fighting, and increased time spent on the ground. Placing food in...

Panksepp, J., Herman, B. H., Vilberg, T. et al. 1980. Endogenous opioids and social behavior. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 4(4), 473-487.

Evidence for the hypothesis that brain-opioids mediate social affect and social attachments is summarized. Opiates and opioids are very effective in reducing social separation-induced distress vocalizations (DVs), in puppies, young guinea pigs and chicks, while...

Chamove, A. S., Anderson, J. R. 1979. Woodchip litter in macaque groups. Animal Technology 30, 69-74.

The effects of the presence of woodchips as a floor covering were assessed on psychological well-being in two pens housing 28 macaques. No negative effects were found, while aggression decreased and time foraging on the...

Tardif, S. D., Bales, K., Williams, L. et al. 2006. Preparing New World monkeys for laboratory research. ILAR Journal 47(4), 307-315.

New World monkeys represent an important but often poorly understood research resource. The relatively small size and low zoonotic risk of these animals make them appealing as research subjects in a number of areas. However...