Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Howard, B., Nevalainen, T., Perretta, G. (ed). 2010. The COST Manual of Laboratory Animal Care and Use: Refinement, Reduction, and Research (1st Ed). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

COST Action B-24 established four working groups to research and discuss issues relevant to laboratory animal science. These included the housing of animals, environmental needs, refinement of procedures, genetically modified animals, and cost-benefit analysis. Based...

Pearson, B. L., Judge, P., Reeder, D. M. 2008. Effectiveness of saliva collection and enzyme-immunoassay for the quantification of cortisol in socially housed baboons. American Journal of Primatology 70(12), 1145-1151.

Circulating cortisol levels are often used to assess the biological stress response in captive primates. Some methods commonly used to collect blood samples may alter the stress response. As such, noninvasive means to analyze cortisol...

Leland, S. P., West, A. M., Shaver, C. K. et al. 2008. Longitudinal comparison of rates of species-typical behavior of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in an enriched laboratory environment. American Journal of Primatology 70(S1), 51. (31st Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #92)

Behavioral observations were conducted as an ongoing program of monitoring psychological well-being of chimpanzees involved in IACUC-approved preventive medicine studies. The chimpanzees were housed in a facility that provided a variety of enrichment objects, climbing...

Hawkins, P., Hubrecht, R., Buckwell, A. et al. 2008. Refining Rabbit Care: A Resource for Those Working With Rabbits in Research. UFAW/RSPCA: Southwater, UK, 27 pp.

The report sets out how to provide: optimal enclosure characteristicsand size; social housing; solid flooring and substrate; raised areas; refuges; gnawing objects and dietary enrichment; positive interaction with humans; toys and objects to manipulate; for...

Lidfors, L., Edström, T., Lindberg, L. 2007. The welfare of laboratory rabbits. In: The Welfare of Laboratory Animals, volume 2. Kaliste, E. (Ed), 211-243. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Very useful review of species-adequate housing recommendations for rabbits.

Spangenberg, E. M. F., Björklund, L., Dahlborn, K. 2006. Outdoor housing of laboratory dogs: Effects on activity, behaviour and physiology. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 8, 260-276 .

Laboratory dogs are mainly housed indoors and outdoor housing is often considered to be an insecure and uncontrollable alternative. This study aimed to assess the effects of outdoor housing of laboratory dogs on their general...

Conour, L. A., Murray, K. A., Brown, M. J. 2006. Preparation of animals for research -- Issues to consider for rodents and rabbits. ILAR Journal 47(4), 283-293.

This article provides details to consider when preparing to use animals in biomedical research. The stress of transport and receipt of animals into a new environment mandate the need for a period of stabilization and...

Schapiro, S. J. 2005. Chimpanzees used in research: Voluntary blood samples differ from anesthetized samples. AWI Quarterly 54(3) (Summer), 15-16.

Chimpanzees were successfully trained to cooperate during injection and blood collection.

Mikkelsen, L. F., Bentsen, H., Gerlach, B. 2003. The restraint platform - refinement of long term restraining of dogs for experimental procedures. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 30(4), 217-219.

This short communication describes a new method for the long term restraining of dogs for experimental procedures like multiple blood sampling. The newly developed platform offers the dog a choice either to lie down, sit...

Reinhardt, V. 2001. The impossible housing and handling conditions of monkeys in research laboratories. IPPL [International Protection League] News 28(2), 5-7.

The prevailing housing and handling conditions of monkeys in research institutions is described. The present situation in primate research laboratories strongly suggests that professional judgment is no guarantee that the inhumane housing and handling conditions...

Schapiro, S. J. 2000. A few new developments in primate housing and husbandry. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 27(2), 103-110.

A major focus of this paper is an examination of the complementary role that behavioral management strategies play in the establishment and enhancement of well-defined nonhuman primate research resources. .... Additionally, I will discuss the...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. Blood collection procedure of laboratory primates: A neglected variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(4), 321-333.

A survey of 75 biomedical articles dealing with stress-dependent blood parameters in caged primates revealed that the conditions under which blood collection occurred were in most cases [72%] described either not at all or so...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. The lower row monkey cage: An overlooked variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(2), 141-149.

A survey of 96 primatological articles revealed that cage location of research monkeys is usually not mentioned (98%), in spite of the fact that the environment of upper- and lower-row housed animals markedly differs in...

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Warniment, A., Brent, L. 1997. Abnormal behavior in a captive chimpanzee colony. The Newsletter 8(3), 1-3.

The purpose of this study was to link abnormal behaviors often expressed by chimpanzees living in captive environments to factors related to their care and housing. Individuals who had spent more time with their mothers...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Species-adequate housing and handling conditions for Old World nonhuman primates kept in research institutions. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 85-93. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

Practical recommendations to address five basic characteristics of Old World primates in the laboratory setting: a) social disposition, b) semi-arboreal lifestyle, c) complex living environment, d) intelligence, e) sensitivity to distress.

Kuhar, C. W. 1997. Space use and behavior patterns of captive chimpanzees in a large indoor enclosure. The Newsletter 9(1), 1-4.

The purpose of this study is to consider space use patterns of a single group of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed in an indoor exhibit at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. This report summarizes results from...

Reinhardt, V., Liss, C., Stevens, C. 1996. Space requirement stipulations for caged non-human primates in the United States: A critical review. Animal Welfare 5(4), 361-372 .

Cage space requirements for non-human primates in the United States of America are less than those in European countries. Studies in support of the assumption that the US legal minimum cage size provides adequate space...

Kessel, A. L., Brent, L. 1996. Space utilization by captive-born baboons (Papio sp.) before and after provision of structural enrichment. Animal Welfare 5(1), 37-44.

Eight baboon groups (Papio sp.) were observed for over one hundred scan samples both before and after the provision of structural enrichment. Additions to their home-cage included a galvanized ladder suspended horizontally by chains and...

Reinhardt, V., Liss, C., Stevens, C. 1995. Restraint methods of laboratory non-human primates: A critical review. Animal Welfare 4(3), 221-238 .

Published information provides scientific evidence that traditional, involuntary restraint techniques of research non-human primates are intrinsically a source of distress resulting from fear. It has been documented that common methods of enforced restraint result in...

Brent, L. 1995. Improving the laboratory environment for nonhuman primates. Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) Quarterly 44(1), 14-15.

Environmental improvements include construction of large indoor cages that allow pairing of experimental animals, a grass-covered 'playground' for breeding chimpanzee groups, and indoor/outdoor group housing for 'retired' experimental animals. In addition, we provide toys, perches...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Traditional handling procedures of laboratory nonhuman primates are an intrinsic source of distress: What can be done? In Touch 1(4), 1 & 6-7.

With some professional expertise and goodwill, there should be no real need to resort to forceful restraint when doing research with nonhuman primates.

Brent, L., Lee, D. R., Eichberg, J. W. 1991. Evaluation of a chimpanzee enrichment enclosure . Journal of Medical Primatology 20(1), 29-34.

A large, three-part playground for captive chimpanzees was constructed and evaluated in terms of area use and behavior changes. Comparative behavioral samples were obtained on 38 subjects in the existing indoor-outdoor run and in the...

Hughes, H. C., Campbell, S., Kenney, C. 1989. The effects of cage size and pair housing on exercise in beagle dogs. Laboratory Animal Science 39, 302-305.

Dogs in the single cage size spent slightly less time moving, but they moved at a greater speed than when housed in double sized cages [probably because of the extreme confinement condition leading to frustration...