Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Wood, L. L., Boyd, A. M., Rose, R. et al. 2011. Implementation of an enrichment rack for singly housed male nonhuman primates. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 732 (Abstract #PS54).

The racks provide four different levels of horizontal bars where manipulanda can be hung. .. The racks are positioned in front of a 4-caged housing system. .. The enrichment racks have produced an increase in...

Buck, C., Pittman, P., Coburn, A. et al. 2011. Primate foraging ice blocks: Cool treats and interactive eats. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 16(3), 2.

The [ice] blocks provide a stimulating foraging experience for the NHPs. The blocks last up to an hour fully melting; however, most NHPs have them broken apart and are eating them within 15 minutes. Some...

Kistler, C., Hegglin, D., Würbel, H. et al. 2011. Preference for structured environment in zebrafish (Danio rerio) and checker bards (Puntius oligolepis). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 135(4), 318-327.

Information about the welfare and husbandry of pet and laboratory fish is scarce although millions of fish are sold in pet shops and used in laboratory research every year. Inadequate housing conditions can cause behavioural...

Spence, R., Magurran, A. E., Smith, C. 2011. Spatial cognition in zebrafish: The role of strain and rearing environment. Animal Cognition 14(4), 607–612.

Two strains of zebrafish, WIK and a second-generation wild strain were reared in either a structurally simple or complex environment and compared in their ability to locate a food reward in a five-chambered maze. There...

Waitt, C. D., Bushmitz, M., Honess, P. E. 2010. Designing environments for aged primates. Laboratory Primate Newsletter, 49(3), 5-9.

In order to prevent physical and psychological deterioration in older animals, it is important to apply the same principles of environmental enrichment and housing as are applied to younger animals. As we have discussed above...

Lozano, A., West, A., Leland, S. et al. 2010. Preventing boredom in NHPs using fleece fabric and food treats. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(5), page numbers missing.

Recently, I devised yet another way to use this fleece material to enhance the environments of our animals. To this end, I sought out a way to present food enrichment to our animals so that...

Hoy, J. M., Murray, P. J., Tribe, A. 2010. Thirty years later: Enrichment practices for captive mammals. Zoo Biology 29(3), 303-316.

Environmental enrichment of captive mammals has been steadily evolving over the past thirty years. For this process to continue, it is first necessary to define current enrichment practices and then identify the factors that limit...

Bennett, A. J., Corcoran, C. A., Hardy, V. A. et al. 2010. Multidimensional cost-benefit analysis to guide evidence-based environmental enrichment: Providing bedding and foraging substrate to pen-housed monkeys. JAALAS 49(5), 571-577.

Refinement of animal care and housing is an important shared goal - and challenge - of the team of research, veterinary, and animal care personnel charged with ensuring the wellbeing of laboratory animals. This study...

Von Krogh, K., Sørensen, C., Nilsson, G. E. et al. 2010. Forebrain cell proliferation, behavior, and physiology of zebrafish, Danio rerio, kept in enriched or barren environments. Physiology & Behavior 101(1), 32-39.

Comparative studies on neural plasticity in non-mammalian vertebrates are increasingly promoted as an important complement to mammalian models. In teleost fishes the number of brain cells increases with age, body weight, and body length throughout...

Brown, C. 2009. Novel food items as environmental enrichment for rodents and rabbits. Lab Animal 38(4), 119-120.

This column discusses the use of novel dietary supplements as environmental enrichment for rodents and rabbits. Items are commercially available from lab animal supply companies. The purpose of enrichment is to encourage behaviors that are...

Dunkel, A. 2008. Ice-timed feeders to promote foraging. Shape of Enrichment 17(3), 12-13.

For many animals in nature, foraging is simply a matter of traveling and discovering available food. It provides both physical exercise and mental stimulation, often consuming much of an animal’s time. Replicating this in a...

Munds, R. A., Best, K., Hoppy, P. et al. 2007. Captive lemur response to two types of natural enrichment. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 132(S44), 175 (76th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists Program, Abstract).

Enrichment has been known to increase the well being and species typical behavior of captive animals. While much research has been done on the effectiveness of enrichment or captive monkeys and apes, research on enrichment...

Conour, L. A., Murray, K. A., Brown, M. J. 2006. Preparation of animals for research -- Issues to consider for rodents and rabbits. ILAR Journal 47(4), 283-293.

This article provides details to consider when preparing to use animals in biomedical research. The stress of transport and receipt of animals into a new environment mandate the need for a period of stabilization and...

Nelson, R. J., Mandrell, T. D. 2005. Enrichment and nonhuman primates: "First, do no harm". ILAR Journal 46(2), 171-177.

Since the 1998 publication of The Psychological Well-Being of Nonhuman Primates by the National Research Council, and the 1991 implementation of the 1985 Animal Welfare Act Amendment, many formal and informal nonhuman primate enrichment programs...

Lutz, C. K., Novak, M. 2005. Environmental enrichment for nonhuman primates: Theory and application. ILAR Journal 46(2), 178-191.

Only social contact satisfies the goal of promoting a wide variety of species-typical activities while at the same time reducing or preventing the development of abnormal behavior... A number of toys should be provided initially...

Kulpa-Eddy, J. A., Taylor, S., Adams, K. M. 2005. USDA perspectives on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR Journal 46(2), 83-94.

This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of...

Fernández-Teruel, A., Giménez-Llort, L., Escorihuela, R. M. et al. 2002. Early-life handling stimulation and environmental enrichment: Are some of their effects mediated by similar neural mechanisms? Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 73(1), 233-245.

Neonatal (early) handling (EH) and environmental enrichment (EE) of laboratory rodents have been the two most commonly used methods of providing supplementary environmental stimulation in order to study behavioral and neurobiological plasticity. A large body...

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Reinhardt, V., Roberts, A. 1997. Effective feeding enrichment for non-human primates: A brief review. Animal Welfare 6(3), 265-272.

There is a growing awareness that non-human primates kept in zoos and laboratories deserve more species-appropriate stimulation because of their biological adaptation to a challenging environment. Numerous attempts have been made to effectively emulate the...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Pecenko, N. 1997. Visitors as an environmental enrichment. In: Proceedings on the International Conference on Environmental Enrichment. Holst, B. (ed), 325-33. Copenhagen Zoo, Frederiksberg, DK.

Because of the influence in behaviour, we can say that visitors are a kind of environmental enrichment. .... Sometimes visitors have a negative effect (increase of aggressive behaviour, begging for food) and in some cases...

Burghardt, G. M., Ward, B., Rosscoe, R. 1996. Problem of reptile play: Environmental enrichment and play behavior in a captive Nile soft‐shelled turtle, Trionyx triunguis. Zoo Biology 15(3), 223-238.

Giving captive animals the opportunity to interact with objects in a “playful” manner is often considered a method of environmental enrichment. However, the occurrence of play in nonavian reptiles is controversial and poorly documented. Similarly...

Hilken, G., Willmann, F., Dimigen, J. et al. 1994. Preference of Xenopus leavis for different housing conditions. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 21(2), 71-80.

In this study, the preference of X. laevis for different housing conditions were examined. X. laevis preferred dark backgrounds, a water temperature between 20C-22C and the deeper parts of the test basin. Red earthenware pipe...

Marriott, B. M., Marriott, R. W., Norris, J. et al. 1993. A semi-natural habitat for housing small, nonhuman primates. Journal of Medical Primatology 22, 348-354.

A semi-natural habitat that was designed to house a group of squirrel monkeys is described. Animals maintained in this environment were healthy, and none of the animals exhibited locomotor stereotypies. This facility was easier and...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 1992. Quantitatively tested environmental enrichment options for singly-caged nonhuman primates: A review. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 6, 374-384.

Compatible companionship has a therapeutic effect on behavioral disorders, providing long- term stimulation of a great variety of species-typical social behavior patterns. Inanimate objects have little impact on behavioral disorders, but some of them provide...