Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Abney, D., Conlee, K., Cunneen, M. et al. 2006. Human-animal relationship in the research lab: a discussion by the Refinement and Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 5(2), 95-98.

The question was asked: "Does the regular, affectionate interaction with adult animals help the subject overcome the fear of humans, and hence buffer the stress response to being handled during experimental procedures?" I think an...

Conour, L. A., Murray, K. A., Brown, M. J. 2006. Preparation of animals for research -- Issues to consider for rodents and rabbits. ILAR Journal 47(4), 283-293.

This article provides details to consider when preparing to use animals in biomedical research. The stress of transport and receipt of animals into a new environment mandate the need for a period of stabilization and...

Smith, M., Barley, J., Down, N. et al. 2005. Catching animals who have escaped from their primary enclosure: A discussion by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 4(1), 41-44.

Capturing rodents, nonhuman primates and birds who have escaped from their primary enclosure does not need to be a chaotic event and does not necessitate the use of stress-inducing, possibly injurious methods in most cases...

Kulpa-Eddy, J. A., Taylor, S., Adams, K. M. 2005. USDA perspectives on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR Journal 46(2), 83-94.

This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of...

Bayne, K. 2005. Potential for unintended consequences of environmental enrihment for laboratory animals and research results. ILAR Journal 46(2), 129-139.

Many aspects of the research animal's housing environment are controlled for quality and/or standardization. Of recent interest is the potential for environmental enrichment to have unexpected consequences such as unintended harm to the animal, or...

Reinhardt, V. 2003. Compassion for animals in the laboratory: Impairment or refinement of research methodology? Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(2), 123-130.

There is every reason to believe that individuals who care about their wards on a personal level actually treat the animals better (Herzog, 2002, p. 30). Compassion for animals used in research, testing and teaching...

Wolfle, T. L. 2002. Introduction. ILAR Journal 43(1), 1-3.

Introduction to ILAR's issue Implications of Human-Research Interactions and Bond in the Laboratory. I was encouraged not to assign names to the many rhesus monkeys in my charge. I was admonished that the animals are...

Iliff, S. A. 2002. An additional R - Remembering the animals. ILAR Journal 43(1), 38-47.

The need to recognize the existence of bonds between caregivers and their animals is discussed. Involvement in a venue to acknowledge the contributions animals make to teaching, testing, and research can be a satisfying and...

Davis, H. 2002. Prediction and preparation: Pavlovian implications of research animals discriminating among humans. ILAR Journal 43(1), 19-26.

The presence of humans as possible confounding variables is discussed. Human subjects are rarely if ever passive sources of data in studies involving animals.

Russow, L.-M. 2002. Ethical implications of the human-animal bond. ILAR Journal 43(1), 33-37.

Researchers must continue to question the barriers that have traditionally been erected against forming HABs [human-animal bonds] in the name of objectivity and to investigate seriously the ways in which fostering the formation of HABs...

Herzog, H. 2002. Ethical aspects of relationships between humans and research animals. ILAR Journal 43(1), 27-32.

More often than not, moral dilemmas are the result of good people trying to do the right thing when the right thing is unclear [p. 29]. I have spoken with some animal care staff who...

Chang, F. T., Hart, L. A. 2002. Human-animal bonds in the laboratory: How animal behavior affects the perspectives of caregivers. ILAR Journal 43(1), 10-18.

People are attracted by the animals to become caregivers in laboratories, which points to the importance of providing caregivers opportunities for rewarding interactions with the animals. Opportunities that enhance the comfort of the animals and...

Bayne, K. 2002. Development of the human-research animal bond and its impact on animal well-being. ILAR Journal 43(1), 4-9.

The various roots of human-animal bonding in the research laboratory setting are reviewed. The development of these relationships is enriching to both personnel and animals inasmuch as people who care about their animals are committed...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. The lower row monkey cage: An overlooked variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(2), 141-149.

A survey of 96 primatological articles revealed that cage location of research monkeys is usually not mentioned (98%), in spite of the fact that the environment of upper- and lower-row housed animals markedly differs in...

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Buchanan-Smith, H. M. 1997. Considerations for the housing and handling of New World primates in the laboratory. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 75-84. Animal Welfare Institute: Washington, DC.

Caretakers should seek knowledge of the natural lifestyles of the primates in their charge, and attempt to reproduce in the captive environment the salient aspects of the natural habitats that are biologically relevant to the...

Visalberghi, E., Anderson, J. R. 1993. Reasons and risks associated with manipulating captive primates' social environments. Animal Welfare 2(1), 3-15 .

Review of the implications of experimental or management-related manipulations of the social environment of captive primates for the animals' welfare. Relatively little empirical work has been done on the effects of manipulation of the social...

Fajzi, K., Reinhardt, V., Smith, M. D. 1989. A review of environmental enrichment strategies for singly-caged nonhuman primates. Lab Animal 18(2), 23-35.

Comprehensive literature review dealing with the following topics: a) Group housing versus single housing; b) Enrichment strategies using inanimate objects; c) Socialization with conspecifics; d) Role of animal care staff.

Chamove, A. S., Anderson, J. R., Morgan-Jones, S. C. et al. 1982. Deep woodchip litter: Hygiene, feeding, and behavioral enhancement in eight primate species. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 3, 308-318.

Sixty-seven animals from eight primate species were used to assess improved husbandry techniques. The presence of woodchips as a direct-contact litter decreased inactivity and fighting, and increased time spent on the ground. Placing food in...

Peterson, E. A. 1980. Noise and laboratory animals. Laboratory Animal Science 30, 422-439.

The preponderance of experimental evidence gathered over the past three decades indicates that exposure to intense noise can lead to a wide variety of functional and structural changes in laboratory animals. Although little information regarding...

Nerem, R. M., Levensque, M. J., Cornhill, J. F. 1980. Social environment as a factor of diet induced atherosclerosis. Science 208, 1475-1476.

Rabbits were fed a high-cholesterol diet to induce atherosclerosis. Animals who received special attention from a person (frequent handling, petting, playing, gentle vocalization) showed a markedly lower incidence of atheroslerosis than subjects who received no...

Tardif, S. D., Bales, K., Williams, L. et al. 2006. Preparing New World monkeys for laboratory research. ILAR Journal 47(4), 307-315.

New World monkeys represent an important but often poorly understood research resource. The relatively small size and low zoonotic risk of these animals make them appealing as research subjects in a number of areas. However...