Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Marriott, B. M., Marriott, R. W., Norris, J. et al. 1993. A semi-natural habitat for housing small, nonhuman primates. Journal of Medical Primatology 22, 348-354.

A semi-natural habitat that was designed to house a group of squirrel monkeys is described. Animals maintained in this environment were healthy, and none of the animals exhibited locomotor stereotypies. This facility was easier and...

Fritz, J., Howell, S. M. 1993. Psychological wellness for captive chimpanzees: An evaluative program. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 426-434.

Authors describe the "Wellness Program" of the Primate Foundation of Arizona (PFA) devoted to producing physically and behaviorally normal chimpanzees. Psychological well-being is a major focus. In this paper, the authors present protocols specific to...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 1992. Quantitatively tested environmental enrichment options for singly-caged nonhuman primates: A review. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 6, 374-384.

Compatible companionship has a therapeutic effect on behavioral disorders, providing long- term stimulation of a great variety of species-typical social behavior patterns. Inanimate objects have little impact on behavioral disorders, but some of them provide...

Pruetz, J. D., Bloomsmith, M. A. 1992. Comparing two manipulable objects as enrichment for captive chimpanzees. Animal Welfare 1(2), 127-137.

This study compared the effectiveness of kraft wrapping paper and rubber to as enrichment for 22 chimpanzees group-housed in conventional indoor/outdoor runs. Objects were tested separately during 67 hours of data collection using a group...

Poenisch, T. 1992. Bedding for enrichment. The Newsletter 4(1), 1.

When forage materials [chicken scratch] are provided, bedding materials, such as straw or shredded newspaper, along with woodchips increase the amount of time the captive chimpanzee spends in search of forage materials. ... Whether this...

Laule, G. E. 1992. Use of positive behavioral techniques in primates for husbandry and enrichment. The Newsletter 3(4), 1-2.

Primates, as a group, offer great opportunities for positive reinforcement work.

Lambeth, S. P., Bloomsmith, M. A. 1992. Mirrors as enrichment for the captive chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). The Newsletter 3(3), 1.

No quantitative studies have focused on the properties of a mirror and its use as a social enrichment tool. We did an observation study, which included 239 12-minute sessions over a four month period to...

Gilloux, I., Gurnell, J., Shepherdson, D. 1992. An enrichment device for great apes. Animal Welfare 1(4), 279-289.

The influence of an environmental enrichment feeding device (puzzle feeder), on activity and behaviour patterns of captive orang-utans, gorillas and chimpanzees was studied at London Zoo. General activity levels and behaviours directed towards the feeder...

Brent, L. 1992. Woodchip bedding as enrichment for captive chimpanzees in an outdoor enclosure. Animal Welfare 1(3), 161-170.

The use of woodchips as bedding for 16 juvenile chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) was evaluated for the effects on behaviour, health and husbandry practices. Woodchip bedding was placed in two outdoor play areas for five consecutive...

Brent, L. 1992. Enriching the lives of captive primates. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 6, 371-373.

The author reviews improvements in the behavioral management of a colony of captive chimpanzees at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research. Environmental enrichment techniques, such as providing increased opportunities for physical, sensory, and feeding stimulation...

Salzen, E. A., Marriott, B. M. 1991. Technical note: A primatrail or an inexpensive cage expansion for group housing small primates. Journal of Medical Primatology 20(2), 94-96.

An inexpensive method for converting standard laboratory cages into colony units for housing small primate species is described. In addition to increasing the volume of space available to the animals, this system also provides a...

Reinhardt, V., Pape, R. 1991. An alternative method for primate perch installation. Lab Animal 20(8), 47-48.

Modification of squeeze cages is described allowing the installation of a perch that does not interfere with the normal operation of the cage.

Love, J. A., Hammond, K. 1991. Group-housing rabbits. Lab Animal 20(8), 37-43.

The management and success of a group-housing indoor/outdoor pen system for rabbits [mainly females] is described and discussed. Over a three-year study period a total of 141,000 rabbits were included in the assessment. The levels...

Brent, L., Lee, D. R., Eichberg, J. W. 1991. Evaluation of a chimpanzee enrichment enclosure . Journal of Medical Primatology 20(1), 29-34.

A large, three-part playground for captive chimpanzees was constructed and evaluated in terms of area use and behavior changes. Comparative behavioral samples were obtained on 38 subjects in the existing indoor-outdoor run and in the...

Shumaker, R. W. 1989. Choices for captive primates. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 3, 117.

General considerations for appropriate cage space arrangement for small monkeys.

Novak, M. A., Suomi, S. J. 1989. Psychological well-being of primates in captivity. ILAR Journal 31(3), 5-15.

Recent amendments to the Animal Welfare Act will, upon taking effect, require that researchers who maintain nonhuman primates in captivity house their animals in such a way as to “promote their psychological well-being.” Unfortunately, no...

Fajzi, K., Reinhardt, V., Smith, M. D. 1989. A review of environmental enrichment strategies for singly-caged nonhuman primates. Lab Animal 18(2), 23-35.

Comprehensive literature review dealing with the following topics: a) Group housing versus single housing; b) Enrichment strategies using inanimate objects; c) Socialization with conspecifics; d) Role of animal care staff.

de Waal, F. B. M. 1989. Food sharing and reciprocal obligations among chimpanzees. Journal of Human Evolution 18(5), 433-459.

Food sharing has been proposed as the propeller of hominid evolution, particularly of the development of systems of mutual social obligation. Yet, food sharing in our closest relative has never been subjected to a rigorous...

Love, J. A. 1988. Housing for rabbits. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 2, 47-48.

In most laboratory situations, rabbits are kept isolated in cages. ... We have attempted to correct this deficiency by keeping rabbits in either large tubs which can accommodate six or more animals or in indoor/outdoor...

Chamove, A. S., Anderson, J. R., Morgan-Jones, S. C. et al. 1982. Deep woodchip litter: Hygiene, feeding, and behavioral enhancement in eight primate species. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 3, 308-318.

Sixty-seven animals from eight primate species were used to assess improved husbandry techniques. The presence of woodchips as a direct-contact litter decreased inactivity and fighting, and increased time spent on the ground. Placing food in...

Nerem, R. M., Levensque, M. J., Cornhill, J. F. 1980. Social environment as a factor of diet induced atherosclerosis. Science 208, 1475-1476.

Rabbits were fed a high-cholesterol diet to induce atherosclerosis. Animals who received special attention from a person (frequent handling, petting, playing, gentle vocalization) showed a markedly lower incidence of atheroslerosis than subjects who received no...

Murphy, D. E. 1976. Enrichment and occupational devices for orangutans and chimpanzees. International Zoo News 137(23.5), 24-26.

A heavy metal cylinder, 60 cm long and 45 cm in diameter, was capped on each end and bolted to a platform. Three 8 cm holes in the cylinder allowed access to the inside. A...

Köhler, W. 1921. Intelligenzprüfungen an Menschenaffen. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany.

Chimpanzees readily use tools in most intelligent ways to retrieve food items.

Tardif, S. D., Bales, K., Williams, L. et al. 2006. Preparing New World monkeys for laboratory research. ILAR Journal 47(4), 307-315.

New World monkeys represent an important but often poorly understood research resource. The relatively small size and low zoonotic risk of these animals make them appealing as research subjects in a number of areas. However...