Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Perlman, J. E., Bloomsmith, M. A., Whittaker, M. A. et al. 2012. Implementing positive reinforcement animal training programs at primate laboratories. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 137(3-4), 114-126.

In the last decade several surveys of primate care and training programs highlight a common theme; despite scientific evidence that animal training can be effective in reducing stress, increasing efficiency and improving veterinary care, animal...

Scotto, J. 2012. Group housing male rabbits: Yes, it can be done. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 17(6), 3.

Since we receive rabbits at 10-12 weeks of age and we only house them for about 3 to 4 weeks, we decided to give group housing a try. Change is hard for most people and...

Coleman, K. 2012. Individual differences in temperament and behavioral management practices for nonhuman primates. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 137(3-4), 106-113.

This review will examine how individual differences in temperament might affect, or be affected by, behavioral management practices for captive primates. Measuring temperament may help us predict the outcome of social introductions. It can also...

Camacho, J. N., Boskovic, S., Moeller, E. 2012. Improved nonhuman primate social housing using visual cues associated for an intensive research study. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 636-637 (Abstract #PS35).

Lean management-based visual tools have been used to improve the quality of animal care associated with a complex research study involving immune-compromised cynomolgus monkeys (M. fascicularis) in various postsurgical recovery states. In order to effectively...

Baker, K. C. 2012. Implementation of pair housing for laboratory primates. American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 31. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #20)

There is a general consensus among those studying the welfare of captive primates that social housing is the most effective means for promoting psychological well-being. It is well established that socially-housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)...

Schapiro, S. J., Bernacky, B. J. 2011. Socialization strategies and disease transmission in captive colonies of nonhuman primates. American Journal of Primatology 74(6), 518-527.

In captive research environments for nonhuman primates (NHP), social housing strategies are often in conflict with protocols designed to minimize disease transmission. This is particularly true in breeding colonies, and is especially relevant when attempting...

Schapiro, S. J., Lambeth, S. P., Malling, R. et al. 2011. Structures and functions that facilitate the voluntary participation of chimpanzees in research/medical procedures. American Journal of Primatology 73(S1), 35. (34th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #7)

Training captive nonhuman primates to voluntarily participate in a variety of necessary research and medical procedures is a valuable refinement in the management of captive primates. For the purposes of this talk, training programs require...

Owen, Y., Amory, J. R. 2011. A case study employing operant conditioning to reduce stress of capture for red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus). Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 14(2), 124-137.

Traditional techniques used to capture New World monkeys, such as net capture, can induce high levels of acute stress detrimental to welfare. Alternatively, training nonhuman animals via operant conditioning to voluntarily participate in husbandry and/or...

Research Department, RSPCA. 2011. Rabbits: Good Practice for Housing and Care (3rd edition).

This report describes what rabbits need in terms of social housing, enclosure size and type, and environmental enrichment. It also describes potential husbandry-related welfare problems and how to resolve them.

Williams, R. C., Nash, L. T., Scarry, C. J. et al. 2010. Factors affecting wounding aggression in a colony of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Zoo Biology 29(3), 351-364.

Previous research has suggested that chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) display higher levels of aggression in captivity than in the wild. One of the challenges of captive management, therefore, is to balance the chimpanzees' need for social...

Watts, A. 2010. Thinking outside the box in box training. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(2), 3.

At the Oregon National Primate Research Center, we train animals to enter transfer boxes using positive reinforcement training (PRT), a type of training in which the trainer reinforces desired behaviors (such asentering the transfer box)...

Perlman, J. E., Lambeth, S. P., Horner, V. et al. 2010. Videotaped demonstrator improves efficiency of training chimpanzees to urinate on cue. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 52. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #84)

Studies have shown chimpanzees can learn to perform tasks by watching live or videotaped demonstrators. The present study assessed whether female chimpanzees exposed to a videotaped demonstrator would learn a husbandry-related task, urinating into a...

Moreau, E. 2010. To squeeze or not to squeeze? A Discussion on LAREF, September, 2009. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 49(2), 3-4.

The discussion was started by the following questions: "Is the squeeze-back mechanism more or less stressful than the pole and collar system for removing a macaque from his cage for an IM (intramuscular) injection?" and...

Mayfield, K. L., Livingston, L. G., Kirby, D. W. 2010. Floor housing rabbits to promote weight loss and species-specific behaviors. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 706-707 (Abstract #P81).

Standard rabbit caging offers little in the way of exercise, vertical space for species-typical movements (that is, standing on hind limbs), or ample space for proper social introductions. One commonly used rabbit breed, the New...

Lofgren, J. L., Wrong, C., Hayward, A. et al. 2010. Innovative social rabbit housing. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 659 (Abstract #PS13).

While female rabbits can be safely cohoused, aggression and resulting fight wounds preclude cohousing males. However, males may still benefit from social enrichment. Currently no housing systems provide males a safe opportunity for social interaction...

Edgar, J. L., Seaman, S. C. 2010. The effect of mirrors on the behaviour of singly housed male and female laboratory rabbits. Animal Welfare 19(4), 461-471.

It is widely recognised that single housing is detrimental to the welfare of social species. However, some experimental procedures dictate that laboratory animals are housed individually. There is evidence to suggest that, by mimicking social...

Pomerantz, O., Terkel, J. 2009. Effects of positive reinforcement training techniques on the psychological welfare of zoo-housed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). American Journal of Primatology 71(8), 687-695.

Captive environments encompass various factors that can elevate stress levels and jeopardize the wellbeing of the captive animals. The use of positive reinforcement training (PRT) techniques enables researchers and caretakers to reduce tension directly associated...

Fuller, A. 2009. Successful pair housing of female New Zealand white rabbits. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 14(4), 2-3.

The veterinary staff at our facility has been working to pair house the female New Zealand white rabbits in our training colony. These rabbits range in size, age, and temperament, which can make finding potential...

Hawkins, P., Hubrecht, R., Buckwell, A. et al. 2008. Refining Rabbit Care: A Resource for Those Working With Rabbits in Research. UFAW/RSPCA: Southwater, UK, 27 pp.

The report sets out how to provide: optimal enclosure characteristicsand size; social housing; solid flooring and substrate; raised areas; refuges; gnawing objects and dietary enrichment; positive interaction with humans; toys and objects to manipulate; for...

McMillan, J. L., Perlman, J. E., Bloomsmith, M. A. 2007. Components of an animal training program at a large institution. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 117. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #177)

The application of positive reinforcement training (PRT) has increased in zoological, laboratory, and research settings in recent years, however there is little literature pertaining to the development and implementation of such programs. Over the past...

Kirby, H. 2007. Providing single rabbits with social contact and choice in activities. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 12(2), 1-2.

Perforated cage deviders are used to provide non-contact communication.

Conour, L. A., Murray, K. A., Brown, M. J. 2006. Preparation of animals for research -- Issues to consider for rodents and rabbits. ILAR Journal 47(4), 283-293.

This article provides details to consider when preparing to use animals in biomedical research. The stress of transport and receipt of animals into a new environment mandate the need for a period of stabilization and...

Capitanio, J. P., Kyes, R. C., Fairbanks, L. A. 2006. Considerations in the selection and conditioning of Old World monkeys for laboratory research: Animals from domestic sources. ILAR Journal 47(4), 294-306.

Preparation of domestically bred animals for research usually involves some combination of social separation, relocation, resocialization, alterations in physical space, photoperiod, and diet, as well as exposure to novel environments. The research literature that has...

Bloomsmith, M. A., Schapiro, S. J., Strobert, E. A. 2006. Preparing chimpanzees for laboratory research. ILAR Journal 47(4), 316-325.

The chimpanzee is the only representative of the Great Apes that is extensively involved in biomedical research in primate laboratories. These apes are used as animal models in a variety of studies, including research on...

Schapiro, S. J. 2005. Chimpanzees used in research: Voluntary blood samples differ from anesthetized samples. AWI Quarterly 54(3) (Summer), 15-16.

Chimpanzees were successfully trained to cooperate during injection and blood collection.