Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Garner, J. P. 2005. Stereotypies and other abnormal repetitive behaviors: Potential impact on validity, reliability, and replicability of scientific outcomes. ILAR Journal 46(2), 106-117.

Normal behavior plays a key role in facilitating homeostasis, especially by allowing the animal to control and modify its environment. Captive environments may interfere with these behavioral responses, and the resulting stress may alter many...

Benefiel, A. C., Dong, W. K., Greenough, W. T. 2005. Mandatory enriched housing of laboratory animals: The need for evidence-based evaluation. ILAR Journal 46(2), 95-105.

Environmental enrichment for laboratory animals has come to be viewed as a potential method for improving animal well-being in addition to its original sense as a paradigm for learning how experience molds the brain. It...

Bayne, K. 2005. Potential for unintended consequences of environmental enrihment for laboratory animals and research results. ILAR Journal 46(2), 129-139.

Many aspects of the research animal's housing environment are controlled for quality and/or standardization. Of recent interest is the potential for environmental enrichment to have unexpected consequences such as unintended harm to the animal, or...

Baumans, V. 2005. Environmental enrichment for laboratory rodents and rabbits: Requirements of rodents, rabbits, and research. ILAR Journal 46(2), 162-170.

Environmental conditions such as housing and husbandry have a major impact on the laboratory animal throughout its life and will thereby influence the outcome of animal experiments. However, housing systems for laboratory animals have often...

Sherwin, C. M. 2004. E2 = 3R + 2Q: Calculating species-appropriate environmental enrichment. Proceedings of the International Congress of the International Society for Applied Ethology, 132 (Abstract).

Species appropriate environmental enrichment should be provided to improve both animal welfare and the quality of research data. For research animals, species-appropriate Environmental Enrichment (E2) can be considered as a function of the 3 Rs...

Morris, T., Goulet, S., Morton, D. 2002. The International Symposium on Regulatory Testing and Animal Welfare: Recommendations on best scientific practices for animal care and regulatory toxicology. ILAR Journal 43(Supplement), S123-S125.

The key conclusion from the group's initial discussions was that enough information was now available to make robust recommendations for animal care best practices. Implementation, not information, is therefore the critical issue [p.123]... Well-implemented enrichment...

Guittin, P., Decelle, T. 2002. Future improvements and implementation of animal care practices within the animal testing regulatory environment. ILAR Journal 43(Supplement), S80-S84.

The enrichment of the animals' environment will not likely affect the interpretation of the results, particularly if adequate controls are used. Appropriate enrichment methods can be chosen to be compatible with the aims of the...

Fillman-Holliday, D., Landi, M. S. 2002. Animal care best practices for regulatory testing. ILAR Journal 43(Supplement), S49-S58.

General discussion of environmental enrichment. Many laboratory animal species, especially dogs and nonhuman primates, lose interest and stop using a particular device after exposure to it for some time (authors' experiences). It is best to...

Cohoon, J. 2001. Nylabone on a chain. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 6(1), 2.

Both pigs and rabbits are having a great time banging the bone on the cage - they can swing it around, and they get to chew on it too!

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. Blood collection procedure of laboratory primates: A neglected variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(4), 321-333.

A survey of 75 biomedical articles dealing with stress-dependent blood parameters in caged primates revealed that the conditions under which blood collection occurred were in most cases [72%] described either not at all or so...

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Sambrook, T. D., Buchanan-Smith, H. M. 1997. Control and complexity in novel object enrichment. Animal Welfare 6(3), 207-216.

We discuss the properties of controllability and complexity in novel object enrichment, their definition and present a critique of previous work related to them.

Reinhardt, V., Roberts, A. 1997. Effective feeding enrichment for non-human primates: A brief review. Animal Welfare 6(3), 265-272.

There is a growing awareness that non-human primates kept in zoos and laboratories deserve more species-appropriate stimulation because of their biological adaptation to a challenging environment. Numerous attempts have been made to effectively emulate the...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Buchanan-Smith, H. M. 1997. Considerations for the housing and handling of New World primates in the laboratory. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 75-84. Animal Welfare Institute: Washington, DC.

Caretakers should seek knowledge of the natural lifestyles of the primates in their charge, and attempt to reproduce in the captive environment the salient aspects of the natural habitats that are biologically relevant to the...

Marriott, B. M., Marriott, R. W., Norris, J. et al. 1993. A semi-natural habitat for housing small, nonhuman primates. Journal of Medical Primatology 22, 348-354.

A semi-natural habitat that was designed to house a group of squirrel monkeys is described. Animals maintained in this environment were healthy, and none of the animals exhibited locomotor stereotypies. This facility was easier and...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 1992. Quantitatively tested environmental enrichment options for singly-caged nonhuman primates: A review. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 6, 374-384.

Compatible companionship has a therapeutic effect on behavioral disorders, providing long- term stimulation of a great variety of species-typical social behavior patterns. Inanimate objects have little impact on behavioral disorders, but some of them provide...

Salzen, E. A., Marriott, B. M. 1991. Technical note: A primatrail or an inexpensive cage expansion for group housing small primates. Journal of Medical Primatology 20(2), 94-96.

An inexpensive method for converting standard laboratory cages into colony units for housing small primate species is described. In addition to increasing the volume of space available to the animals, this system also provides a...

Reinhardt, V., Pape, R. 1991. An alternative method for primate perch installation. Lab Animal 20(8), 47-48.

Modification of squeeze cages is described allowing the installation of a perch that does not interfere with the normal operation of the cage.

Fajzi, K., Reinhardt, V., Smith, M. D. 1989. A review of environmental enrichment strategies for singly-caged nonhuman primates. Lab Animal 18(2), 23-35.

Comprehensive literature review dealing with the following topics: a) Group housing versus single housing; b) Enrichment strategies using inanimate objects; c) Socialization with conspecifics; d) Role of animal care staff.

Chamove, A. S. 1989. Environmental enrichment: A review. Animal Technology 40(3), 155-178.

The aims of this contribution are to look at three areas which are addressed by enrichment studies, within the context of a review: (1) the problems produced by spatial restriction, (2) the goals of enrichment...

Beaver, B. V. 1989. Environmental enrichment for laboratory animals. ILAR Journal 31(2), 5-13.

A review of enrichment studies.

Chamove, A. S., Anderson, J. R., Morgan-Jones, S. C. et al. 1982. Deep woodchip litter: Hygiene, feeding, and behavioral enhancement in eight primate species. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 3, 308-318.

Sixty-seven animals from eight primate species were used to assess improved husbandry techniques. The presence of woodchips as a direct-contact litter decreased inactivity and fighting, and increased time spent on the ground. Placing food in...