Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
DiVincenti, L., Rehrig, A., Wyatt, J. 2012. Interspecies pair housing of macaques in a research facility. Laboratory Animals 46(2), 1170-1172.

The eighth edition of The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals establishes social housing as the "default" for social species including non-human primates. The advantages of social housing for primates have been...

Scotto, J. 2012. Group housing male rabbits: Yes, it can be done. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 17(6), 3.

Since we receive rabbits at 10-12 weeks of age and we only house them for about 3 to 4 weeks, we decided to give group housing a try. Change is hard for most people and...

Coleman, K. 2012. Individual differences in temperament and behavioral management practices for nonhuman primates. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 137(3-4), 106-113.

This review will examine how individual differences in temperament might affect, or be affected by, behavioral management practices for captive primates. Measuring temperament may help us predict the outcome of social introductions. It can also...

Camacho, J. N., Boskovic, S., Moeller, E. 2012. Improved nonhuman primate social housing using visual cues associated for an intensive research study. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 636-637 (Abstract #PS35).

Lean management-based visual tools have been used to improve the quality of animal care associated with a complex research study involving immune-compromised cynomolgus monkeys (M. fascicularis) in various postsurgical recovery states. In order to effectively...

Baker, K. C., Crockett, C. M., Lee, G. H. et al. 2012. Pair housing of female longtailed and rhesus macaques in the laboratory: Behavior in protected contact versus full contact. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 15(2), 126-143.

Pair housing for caged macaques in the laboratory generally allows unrestricted tactile contact but, less commonly, may involve limited contact via grooming-contact bars or perforated panels. The purpose of using this protected contact housing, which...

Baker, K. C. 2012. Implementation of pair housing for laboratory primates. American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 31. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #20)

There is a general consensus among those studying the welfare of captive primates that social housing is the most effective means for promoting psychological well-being. It is well established that socially-housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)...

Baker, K. C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Oettinger, B. et al. 2012. Benefits of pair housing are consistent across a diverse population of rhesus macaques. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 137(3-4), 148-156.

Introducing singly housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) into isosexual pairs is widely considered to improve welfare. The population of laboratory rhesus macaques is heterogeneous on a variety of factors and there is little literature available...

Buijs, S., Maertens, L., Tuyttens, F. A. M. et al. 2011. Glucocorticoid metabolites in rabbit faeces - Influence of environmental enrichment and cage size. Physiology & Behavior 104(3), 469-473.

The concentration of glucocorticoid metabolites (GCM) in rabbit faeces has been suggested as a non-invasive indicator of stress. In the present study, GCM concentrations were measured in faeces of fattening rabbits kept in groups of...

Gilbert, M. H., Baker, K. C. 2011. Social buffering in adult male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): Effects of stressful events in single vs pair housing. Journal of Medical Primatology 40(2), 71-78.

The purpose of this study was to test whether long-term pair housing of male rhesus macaques ameliorated negative responses to stressful events that can occur in the course of routine husbandry or research procedures. Twelve...

Schapiro, S. J., Bernacky, B. J. 2011. Socialization strategies and disease transmission in captive colonies of nonhuman primates. American Journal of Primatology 74(6), 518-527.

In captive research environments for nonhuman primates (NHP), social housing strategies are often in conflict with protocols designed to minimize disease transmission. This is particularly true in breeding colonies, and is especially relevant when attempting...

Smith, A. S., Birnie, A. K., French, J. A. 2011. Social isolation affects partner-directed social behavior and cortisol during pair formation in marmosets, Callithrix geoffroyi. Physiology & Behavior 104(5), 955-961.

Pair-bonded relationships form during periods of close spatial proximity and high sociosexual contact. Like other monogamous species, marmosets form new social pairs after emigration or ejection from their natal group resulting in periods of social...

DiVincenti, L., Wyatt, J. D. 2011. Pair housing of macaques in research facilities: A science-based review of benefits and risks. JAALAS 50(6), 856-863.

Despite the enactment in the early 1990s of regulations requiring social housing of nonhuman primates (NHP), single housing is still prevalent in American research facilities. The publication of the 2011 edition of The Guide for...

NC3Rs, University of Stirling. 2011. Common Marmoset Care [Online resource].

The three main divisions of 'marmosetcare.com' aim respectively to promote: an understanding of the range of behaviour in this species, placing this behaviour in the context of its natural habitat and promoting good welfare in...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2011. Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) pair-housing assessment using a quantitative data collection system. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 744-745 (Abstract #PS110).

A behavioral data collection system is described to monitor compatibility of rhesus macaque pairs.

Runeson, E. P., Lee, G. H., Crockett, C. M. et al. 2011. Evaluating paint rollers as an intervention for alopecia in monkeys in the laboratory (Macaca nemestrina). Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 14(2), 138-149.

Adult female macaques (Macaca nemestrina) in the laboratory with alopecia from known or suspected overgrooming were subjects in a study evaluating effectiveness of a grooming device. The intervention evaluated was a paint roller on a...

Swennes, A. G., Alworth, L. C., Harvey, S. B. et al. 2011. Human handling promotes compliant behavior in adult laboratory rabbits. JAALAS 50(2), 41-45.

Routine laboratory procedures can be stressful for laboratory animals. We wanted to determine whether human handling of adult rabbits could induce a degree of habituation, reducing stress and facilitating research-related manipulation. To this end, adult...

Hawkins, P., Burn, C., Hurst, J. et al. 2011. Report of the 2010 RSPCA/UFAW rodent welfare group meeting - The effect of husbandry on welfare and promoting good practice. Animal Technology and Welfare 10(2), 105-114.

The RSPCA/UFAW Rodent Welfare Group holds a one-day meeting every autumn so that its members can discuss current welfare research, exchange views on rodent welfare issues and share experiences of the implementation of the 3Rs...

Baker, K. C., Crockett, C. M., Lee, G. H. et al. 2011. Behavior of female pairs vary between protected contact and full contact pair housing in rhesus macaques but not longtailed macaques. American Journal of Primatology 73(S1), 107. (34th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #224)

However, tactile contact can also be provided by means of barred or perforated panels that permit physical interaction but prevent entry into pair-mates' cages. Behavioral outcomesmay differ between these housing configurations and between species. To...

Anonymous. 2011. Separating cage-mates temporarily ? A LAREF discussion. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 51, 10.

The question was asked: “Research protocols sometimes require that compatible macaque pairs be physically separated for a limited time period (e.g., controlled food-intake studies; sample collection from chair-restrained subjects). Obviously – and as documented in...

Abney, D. M., Poor, L. L., Reuther, K. J. 2011. Socialization of adult male cynomolgus macaques: benefits vs. costs. American Journal of Primatology 73(S1), 41. (34th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #27)

At Charles River Laboratories (Reno, NV), we have a high rate of success when socializing juvenile and sub-adult cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Until recently, we would rarely attempt to introduce adult males through progressive contact...

Research Department, RSPCA. 2011. Rabbits: Good Practice for Housing and Care (3rd edition).

This report describes what rabbits need in terms of social housing, enclosure size and type, and environmental enrichment. It also describes potential husbandry-related welfare problems and how to resolve them.

Maier, A., Coleman, K. 2010. Rearing condition can affect success in social groups of rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 36. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #35)

Forming successful groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) can be challenging. Males in particular do not always get along, and some need to be permanently removed due to fighting and trauma. Early rearing condition may...

Watts, A. 2010. Thinking outside the box in box training. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(2), 3.

At the Oregon National Primate Research Center, we train animals to enter transfer boxes using positive reinforcement training (PRT), a type of training in which the trainer reinforces desired behaviors (such asentering the transfer box)...

Watson, L. M. 2010. Effectiveness of perforated plexiglass dividers as social grooming devices between neighboring, individually housed adult male Macaca fascicularis. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 49(4), 1-4.

A clear, perforated, plexiglass divider was installed between neighboring cynos to test whether it altered their proximity to one another, or prompted any behavioral changes. ... Adult male cynomolgus monkeys tend not to spend a...

Truelove, M. A., Perlman, J. E., Martin, A. et al. 2010. Effects of social separation on rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) pairs in the laboratory. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 668 (Abstract #PS52).

The benefits to nonhuman primates living in social groupings are well established. However, when certain research that requires housing subjects singly is performed, there are no guidelines as to how paired nonhuman primates should best...