Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Luttrell, L., Acker, L., Urben, M. et al. 1994. Training a large troop of rhesus macaques to co-operate during catching: Analysis of the time investment. Animal Welfare 3(2), 135-140.

This study demonstrates that only a minimal time investment was needed to train a large troop of laboratory non-human primates to co-operate in the catching procedure. A group of 45 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was...

Hilken, G., Willmann, F., Dimigen, J. et al. 1994. Preference of Xenopus leavis for different housing conditions. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 21(2), 71-80.

In this study, the preference of X. laevis for different housing conditions were examined. X. laevis preferred dark backgrounds, a water temperature between 20C-22C and the deeper parts of the test basin. Red earthenware pipe...

Visalberghi, E., Anderson, J. R. 1993. Reasons and risks associated with manipulating captive primates' social environments. Animal Welfare 2(1), 3-15 .

Review of the implications of experimental or management-related manipulations of the social environment of captive primates for the animals' welfare. Relatively little empirical work has been done on the effects of manipulation of the social...

Reinhardt, V. 1993c. Using the mesh ceiling as a food puzzle to encourage foraging behaviour in caged rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 2(2), 165-172.

An attempt was made to encourage more foraging behaviour in eight pair-housed adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). No special device and no special food were used. Daily commercial dry food rations consisting of 33 bar-shaped...

Reinhardt, V. 1993. Enticing nonhuman primates to forage for their standard biscuit ration. Zoo Biology 12(3), 307-312.

Ordinary feeder-boxes were converted into food puzzles by remounting them onto the mesh of the front of the cages, away from original access holes. The total amount of time [pair-housed] adult male rhesus macaques engaged...

Cowley, D., Vertein, R., Pape, H. et al. 1993. Improving the work environment for animal care personnel with laboratory macaques. Animal Technology 44, 129-135.

New techniques were developed to avoid the manual transfer - and the associated health hazard - of caged macaques during handling procedures.

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D. 1992. In-homecage blood collection from conscious stumptailed macaques. Animal Welfare 1(4), 249-255.

Six adult female stumptailed macaques (Macaca aretoides) were trained within a two week period to actively co-operate during in-homecage venipuncture rather than in a restraint apparatus away from the homecage. The training was based on...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Voluntary progression order in captive rhesus macaques. Zoo Biology 11,(1) 61-66.

The sequence in which 14 laboratory rhesus macaques left their home enclosure during a routine catching procedure was recorded on 30 occasions during 6 weeks. The animals were trained to voluntarily exit one by one...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Transport-cage training of caged rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 43, 57-61.

A simple training protocol is described which ensures that [most] caged animals readily enter a transport cage.

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Improved handling of experimental rhesus monkeys. In: The Inevitable Bond. Examining Scientist-Animal Interactions. Davis, H., Balfour, A. D. (eds), 171-177. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

The significant increase of serum cortisol concentration associated with involuntary manual or mechanical restraint during venipuncture was absent in females who were trained to voluntarily cooperate during the procedure in the homecage. The present findings...

Bayne, K., Dexter, S. L., Mainzer H et al. 1992. The use of artificial turf as a foraging substrate for individually housed rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 1, 39-53.

In this study artificial turf was used as the substrate for a particulate food given to the subjects as an environmental enrichment technique. When their cages were not enriched, eight single-caged subjects exhibited abnormal behaviors...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D., Eisele, S. et al. 1991. Avoiding undue cortisol responses to venipuncture in adult male rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 42, 83-86.

Six adult rhesus males were: a) habituated to actively cooperate during venipuncture away from the homecage in a treatment squeeze cage, and b) trained to actively cooperate during venipuncture in the homecage.The magnitude of cortisol...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Training adult male rhesus monkeys to actively cooperate during in-homecage venipuncture. Animal Technology 42, 11-17.

A training technique is described for ensuring the active cooperation of 10 pair-housed and 5 single-housed adult male rhesus monkeys during in-homecage venipuncture. Mean cumulative training time investment per male was 40 minutes. Once trained...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Impact of venipuncture on physiological research conducted in conscious macaques. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34(5-6), 212-217.

A survey of 397 publications dealing with macaques was conducted. Stress-sensitive physiological data collected during venipuncture were evaluated in 58 reports. Despite of the fact that venipuncture often is a stressful event for research animals...

Pough, F. H. 1991. Recommendations for the care of amphibians and reptiles in academic institutions. ILAR Journal 33(4), S1-S21.

Amphibians and reptiles differ in many respects from the mammals and birds most commonly used in biomedical research. These differences affect the physical and biological requirements of amphibians and reptiles in captivity. In this contribution...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D., Scheffler, J. et al. 1990. Cortisol response of female rhesus monkeys to venipuncture in homecage versus venipuncture in restraint apparatus. Journal of Medical Primatology 19, 601-606.

All subjects were well habituated to blood collection, and it was not necessary to immobilize them; they readily presented a leg for venipuncture. In single monkeys venipunctured in the restraint apparatus, cortisol concentrations were on...

Burt, D. A., Plant, M. 1990. Observations on a caging system for housing stump-tailed macaques. Animal Technology 41, 175-179.

This paper describes the introduction of a modified caging system and the benefits to both the animals and staff. The removal of metal grids at the bottom of the cage, and the introduction of direct...

O'Neill, P. L. 1987. Enriching the lives of primates in captivity. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 1, 1-5.

A summary of basic environmental enrichement for group-housed rhesus macaques. The essence of the social primate is lost under the stresses of the nonsocial condition.

Heger, W., Merker, H.-J., Neubert, D. 1986. Low light intensity decreases the fertility of Callithrix jacchus. Primate Report 14, 260 (Abstract).

Improvement of the light fixtures in both rooms doubled the lighting force and increased the breeding rate during the following 12 months approximately 20% in the upper and 130% in the lower cages.

Anderson, J. R. , Chamove, A. S. 1984. Allowing captive primates to forage. In: Standards in Laboratory Animal Management. Proceedings of a Symposium. 253-256. The Universities Federation For Animal Welfare, Potters Bar, UK.

A woodchip litter substrate reduces abnormal behaviours, primarily self-aggression, and encourages foraging, even in the absence of grain. Comparison between the bare floor and litter with grain showed that in the latter monkeys foraged more...

Chamove, A. S., Anderson, J. R., Morgan-Jones, S. C. et al. 1982. Deep woodchip litter: Hygiene, feeding, and behavioral enhancement in eight primate species. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 3, 308-318.

Sixty-seven animals from eight primate species were used to assess improved husbandry techniques. The presence of woodchips as a direct-contact litter decreased inactivity and fighting, and increased time spent on the ground. Placing food in...

Chamove, A. S., Anderson, J. R. 1979. Woodchip litter in macaque groups. Animal Technology 30, 69-74.

The effects of the presence of woodchips as a floor covering were assessed on psychological well-being in two pens housing 28 macaques. No negative effects were found, while aggression decreased and time foraging on the...

Marshall, F. H. A. 1940. The experimental modification of the oestrous cycle in the ferret by different intensities of light irradiations and other methods. Journal of Experimental Biology 17, 139-147.

With female ferrets subjected to different degrees of intensity of light irradiation as measured by placing them at different distances from a 1000 W. lamp, the acceleration of the oestrous cycle, generally speaking, was correlated...

Tardif, S. D., Bales, K., Williams, L. et al. 2006. Preparing New World monkeys for laboratory research. ILAR Journal 47(4), 307-315.

New World monkeys represent an important but often poorly understood research resource. The relatively small size and low zoonotic risk of these animals make them appealing as research subjects in a number of areas. However...