Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Camacho, J. N., Moeller, E., Morris, J. 2009. A psychologic wellbeing response plan for nonhuman primates. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 558 (Abstract #PS84).

Under animal care situations that conform to compliance standards for environmental enrichment established by the Animal Welfare Act (AWA) and the Guide to the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, at least 10% of laboratory...

West, A. M., Leland, S. P., Lorence, M. A. et al. 2008. Behavioral correlates of alopecia severity in laboratory rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 70(S1), 51. (31st Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #93)

Alopecia in laboratory primates is often regarded as a sign of excessive self-grooming due to social deprivation or insufficient environmental enrichment. The purpose of this study was to examine, in individually housed macaques, the occurrence...

Videan, E. N., Ely, J., Lammey, M. et al. 2008. Successful elimination of self-injurious behavior (SIB) in a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes): a case study using a combination of risperidone and environmental enrichment. American Journal of Primatology 70(S1), 50. (31st Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #91)

Self-injurious behavior (SIB) can result in open wounds, tissue damage, and increased risk of infection. In many cases, increased environmental enrichment is not consistently effective in eliminating this behavior. We report here on the successful...

Pearson, B. L., Judge, P., Reeder, D. M. 2008. Effectiveness of saliva collection and enzyme-immunoassay for the quantification of cortisol in socially housed baboons. American Journal of Primatology 70(12), 1145-1151.

Circulating cortisol levels are often used to assess the biological stress response in captive primates. Some methods commonly used to collect blood samples may alter the stress response. As such, noninvasive means to analyze cortisol...

Schapiro, S. J., Laule, G., Seelig, D. 2007. "Applied behavior" panel discussion. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 10(1), 79-81.

Adriane and Kris just trained eight rhesus monkeys to present their arms in the blood sleeve for blood samples, and it took, on average ... 8 months ... 160 minutes spread out into 40 sessions.

Minkel, R. 2007. Pair-housing eliminates compulsive hair pulling: a case report. Laboratory Animal Refinement and Enrichment Forum (electronic discussion group), September 27, 2007.

At a previous institution we had a cyno who suffered from severe hair pulling. He had removed practically all hair from his body; all that was left was a patch in the middle of his...

Mallapur, A., Waran, N., Sinha, A. 2007. A note on enrichment for captive lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 108(1-2), 191-195.

Two enrichment techniques were devised with the aim of reducing stress and improving welfare for captive lion-tailed macaques in an Indian zoo. In Study A, a log, cotton ropes and a feeding basket were added...

Lutz, C. K., Davis, E. J., Suomi, S. J. et al. 2007. The expression of self-injurious behavior in Macaca mulatta: prevalence, risk factors, and context. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 38. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #18)

Self-injurious behavior (SIB) such as self-biting and self-wounding has been observed in a small, but persistent, percentage of captive nonhuman primates. Although biting often looks severe, not all self-biters wound themselves. Risk factors for SIB...

Leland, S. P., West, A. M., Erwin, J. M. et al. 2007. Incorporation of enrichment objects in threat displays by laboratory rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 50. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #43)

Self-directed aggression in laboratory macaques is commonly considered an abnormal behavioral pattern signaling psychological disturbance, whether it is in the form of self-injurious behavior (SIB) or is just part of a self-directed threat display (SDD)...

LAREF [Laboratory Animal Refinement and Enrichment Forum] 2007. Chapter 7.4. Pole-and-collar training of macaques. In: Making Lives Easier for Animals in Research Labs: Discussions by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Baumans, V., Coke, C., Green, J., Moreau, E., Morton, D., Patterson-Kane, E., Reinhardt, A., Reinhardt, V., Van Loo, P. (eds), 127-130. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

While strictly using positive reinforcement and applying patient gentle-firmness, most macaques can be trained to cooperate during the pole-attachment-chairing procedure. Some cannot be trained, because they have problems overcoming their often-legitimate mistrust of humans.

Jarvis, K. A., Gould, J. E. 2007. Effects of a complex enrichment device on stereotypic behaviors, tool use, tool manufacturing, and activity budgets in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 51. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #44)

As a way to reduce abnormal behaviors, specifically finger-sucking, hair-pulling, and reingestion/regurgitation, observed in two male gorillas at The ZOO Northwest Florida, a complex enrichment device that was contingent on the gorilla's ability to use...

Higley, J. D., Davis, E., Woodward, R. A. et al. 2007. Self-injurious behavior in rhesus macaques: early history and present factors and the role of the serotonin system. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 39. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #21)

Self-injurious behavior (SIB) is a problem of virtually all nonhuman primate research facilities. Its incidence varies between institutions and with the strictness of the criteria that are used. Nevertheless, it is widely agreed that several...

Henderson, J., Coleman, K., Bethea, C. L. 2007. Alterations in the serotonin system of monkeys exhibiting self-injurious behaviors. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 40. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #22)

Self-injurious behavior (SIB) presents a serious problem in laboratory macaques that cannot be socially housed for scientific reasons. Pharmaceutical treatments that alter the serotonin (5HT) system have sometimes proven effective in alleviating SIB in both...

Griffis, C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Baker, K. C. et al. 2007. Abnormal behavior as a factor of compliance with positive reinforcement training for singly-housed adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 93. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #128)

Positive reinforcement training is an important element of behavioral management programs for nonhuman primates. However, more empirical information is needed to determine whether animals identified for intervention will engage in such training, affecting the amount...

Fontenot, M. B., Anderson, G. M. 2007. Fluoxetine dose finding study for treatment of self-injurious behavior in Macaca mulatta. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 48. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #38)

Based on clinical efficacy in the short-term treatment of self-injurious behavior in macaques, we performed a dose-finding study to establish optimal doses of fluoxetine (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor). The subjects were 11 male (aged 7...

Crockett, C. M., Bentson, K. L., Bellanca, R. U. 2007. Alopecia and overgrooming in laboratory monkeys vary by species but not sex, suggesting a different etiology than self-biting. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 87. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #117)

Alopecia in laboratory monkeys can result from overgrooming (OG), medical conditions, or hormonal variation. Because hair loss is visible, disproportionate intervention may be expected relative to other indicators of potentially compromised well-being. Two analyses (α=0.05)...

Van Loo, P., Skoumbourdis, E., Reinhardt, V. 2006. Postsurgical pairing: A discussion by the Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 5(1), 17-19.

Our experience-based discussion suggests that social animals benefit from compatible companionship during post-operative recovery. The traditional practice of keeping animals alone in an unfamiliar environment after surgery increases the subjects surgery-associated stress. Providing a familiar...

Tiefenbacher, S., Fahey, M. A., Rowlett, J. K. et al. 2005. The efficacy of diazepam treatment for the management of acute wounding episodes in captive rhesus macaques. Comparative Medicine 55(4), 387-392.

This study examined the effects of diazepam (Valium) on self-wounding and other abnormal behaviors in eight individually housed male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Each monkey's response to an anxiolytic dose of diazepam (1 mg/kg or...

Taylor, D. K., Bass, T., Flory, G. S. et al. 2005. Use of low-dose chlorpromazine in conjunction with environmental enrichment to eliminate self-injurious behavior in a rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). Comparative Medicine 55(3), 282-288.

A 7-year-old, captive-bred, female rhesus macaque was placed in a quarantine facility upon arrival at our institution. At release from quarantine, she was observed pawing at and chewing on her left cheek. ... SIB in...

Skoumbourdis, E. K., Potratz, K. 2005. Diazepam is more effective than midazolam when used as an aid in chair training non-human primates. American Journal of Primatology 66(S1), 164. (28th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #176)

Non-human primates (NHPs) are utilized frequently in biomedical research and can be difficult and sometimes dangerous to handle. Because of this, restraint is sometimes necessary for data collection. Restraint chair training is generally a straightforward...

Schapiro, S. J. 2005. Chimpanzees used in research: Voluntary blood samples differ from anesthetized samples. AWI Quarterly 54(3) (Summer), 15-16.

Chimpanzees were successfully trained to cooperate during injection and blood collection.

Fontenot, M. B., Padgett, E. E., Dupuy, A. M. et al. 2005. The effects of fluoxetine and buspirone on self-injurious and stereotypic behavior in adult male rhesus macaques. Comparative Medicine 55(1), 67-74.

Fluoxetine and buspirone were significantly effective in reducing rates of self-biting during treatment weeks 1 to 8 and self-directed stereotypic behavior during weeks 5 to 12 and post-treatment. No significant effect of either treatment on...

Reinhardt, V. 2003. Working with rather than against macaques during blood collection. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(3), 189-197.

12 adult pair-housed female, 5 adult single-housed male and 10 adult pair-housed male rhesus macaques, and 6 adult pair-housed female stump-tailed macaques were trained to cooperate during in-homecage blood collection. The total number of training...

Bassett, L., Buchanan-Smith, H. M., McKinley, J. et al. 2003. Effects of training on stress-related behavior of the common marmost (Callithrix jacchus) in relation to coping with routine husbandry procedures. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(3), 221-233.

Using positive reinforcement, J. McKinley trained 12 common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) to provide urine samples on request. The study then exposed the marmosets to mildly stressful, routine husbandry procedures (i.e., capture and weighing). The nonhuman...

Reinhardt, V. 2002. The myth of the aggressive monkey. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 5(4), 321-330.

Captive rhesus macaques are not intrinsically aggressive, but poor husbandry and handling practices can trigger their aggression towards conspecifics and towards the human handler. The statement 'rhesus macaques are so aggressive animals' is probably based...