Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Nelson, R. J., Mandrell, T. D. 2005. Enrichment and nonhuman primates: "First, do no harm". ILAR Journal 46(2), 171-177.

Since the 1998 publication of The Psychological Well-Being of Nonhuman Primates by the National Research Council, and the 1991 implementation of the 1985 Animal Welfare Act Amendment, many formal and informal nonhuman primate enrichment programs...

Kulpa-Eddy, J. A., Taylor, S., Adams, K. M. 2005. USDA perspectives on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR Journal 46(2), 83-94.

This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of...

Fontenot, M. B., Padgett, E. E., Dupuy, A. M. et al. 2005. The effects of fluoxetine and buspirone on self-injurious and stereotypic behavior in adult male rhesus macaques. Comparative Medicine 55(1), 67-74.

Fluoxetine and buspirone were significantly effective in reducing rates of self-biting during treatment weeks 1 to 8 and self-directed stereotypic behavior during weeks 5 to 12 and post-treatment. No significant effect of either treatment on...

Reinhardt, V. 2004. Flaws in federal regulations pertaining to the welfare of primates kept in research institutions. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 7(4), 273-276.

Federal welfare regulations for primates kept in research laboratories fail (1) to include recommendations pertaining to the legal requirement of the avoidance of stress and unnecessary discomfort during handling procedures, (2) to specify how the...

Reinhardt, V. 2003. Working with rather than against macaques during blood collection. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(3), 189-197.

12 adult pair-housed female, 5 adult single-housed male and 10 adult pair-housed male rhesus macaques, and 6 adult pair-housed female stump-tailed macaques were trained to cooperate during in-homecage blood collection. The total number of training...

Reinhardt, V. 2003. Legal loophole for subminimal floor area for caged macaques. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(1), 53-56.

The USDA regulations pertaining to the minimum space requirements of nonhuman primates and the fitting of elevated resting surfaces are contradictory. They implicitly condone the prevailing perch design that allows maximal usage of animal room...

National Research Council. 2003. Guidelines for the Care and Use of Mammals in Neuroscience and Behavioral Research. National Academic Press: Washington, DC, 223 pp.

Expanding on the National Research Council’s Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, this book deals specifically with mammals in neuroscience and behavioral research laboratories. It offers flexible guidelines for the care of...

National Health and Medical Research Council [NHMRC] Animal Welfare Committee. 2003. Policy on the Care and Use of Non-Human Primates for Scientific Purposes. National Health and Medical Research Council: Canberra, Australia.
Bassett, L., Buchanan-Smith, H. M., McKinley, J. et al. 2003. Effects of training on stress-related behavior of the common marmost (Callithrix jacchus) in relation to coping with routine husbandry procedures. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(3), 221-233.

Using positive reinforcement, J. McKinley trained 12 common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) to provide urine samples on request. The study then exposed the marmosets to mildly stressful, routine husbandry procedures (i.e., capture and weighing). The nonhuman...

Reinhardt, V., Rossell, M. 2001. Self-biting in caged macaques: Cause, effect and treatment. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 4, 285-294.

In the United States, there are an estimated 15,000 individually caged macaques. If 10% of these animals exhibit visible injuries resulting from self-biting and another 10% show unnoticed self-biting behavior, then about 3,000 animals (20%)...

Schapiro, S. J. 2000. A few new developments in primate housing and husbandry. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 27(2), 103-110.

A major focus of this paper is an examination of the complementary role that behavioral management strategies play in the establishment and enhancement of well-defined nonhuman primate research resources. .... Additionally, I will discuss the...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. Blood collection procedure of laboratory primates: A neglected variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(4), 321-333.

A survey of 75 biomedical articles dealing with stress-dependent blood parameters in caged primates revealed that the conditions under which blood collection occurred were in most cases [72%] described either not at all or so...

Philbin, N. 1998. Towards an understanding of stereotypic behaviour in laboratory macaques. Animal Technology 49, 19-33.

Comprehensive discussion and review of the possible causes of stereotypic behaviour in laboratory macaques. A great deal of debate and controversy has surrounded what does does and does not constitute psychological well-being in primates [p...

Warniment, A., Brent, L. 1997. Abnormal behavior in a captive chimpanzee colony. The Newsletter 8(3), 1-3.

The purpose of this study was to link abnormal behaviors often expressed by chimpanzees living in captive environments to factors related to their care and housing. Individuals who had spent more time with their mothers...

Schnell, C. R., Gerber, P. 1997. Training and remote monitoring of cardiovascular parameters in non-human primates. Primate Report 49, 61-70.

The use of "pre-invasive" implantable radio telemetry has revolutionized the collection of physiological data under stress-free conditions. It is now possible to measure accurately 'normal' baseline data of haemodynamic and electrical parameters in conscious and...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Reinhardt, V. 1996. Refining the blood collection procedure for macaques. Lab Animal 25(1), 32-35.

Training protocol is described. These findings lead to the conclusion that training nonhuman primates to cooperate during venipuncture in their familiar home environment offers a methodological refinement by eliminating significant cortisol responses.

Capitanio, J. P., Mendoza, S. P., McChesney, M. 1996. Influences of blood sampling procedures on basal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal hormone levels and leukocyte values in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Medical Primatology 25(1), 26-33.

Differences in housing location and the amount of room disturbance associated with blood sampling have a significant impact on cell counts, but not on ACTH or cortisol levels. We believe that the critical factor that...

Steen, Z. 1995. Effects of enriched food acquisition on activity budgets of two tamarin species at Adelaide Zoo. International Zoo News 42, 284-298.

Simple bamboo pipe feeder is described and tested in group-housed animals. The aim of the study was to [successfully] increase foraging time with an increasing number of feeding devices [brawn bowl, bamboo pipe]. ... Prior...

Reinhardt, V., Liss, C., Stevens, C. 1995. Restraint methods of laboratory non-human primates: A critical review. Animal Welfare 4(3), 221-238 .

Published information provides scientific evidence that traditional, involuntary restraint techniques of research non-human primates are intrinsically a source of distress resulting from fear. It has been documented that common methods of enforced restraint result in...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Traditional handling procedures of laboratory nonhuman primates are an intrinsic source of distress: What can be done? In Touch 1(4), 1 & 6-7.

With some professional expertise and goodwill, there should be no real need to resort to forceful restraint when doing research with nonhuman primates.

Luttrell, L., Acker, L., Urben, M. et al. 1994. Training a large troop of rhesus macaques to co-operate during catching: Analysis of the time investment. Animal Welfare 3(2), 135-140.

This study demonstrates that only a minimal time investment was needed to train a large troop of laboratory non-human primates to co-operate in the catching procedure. A group of 45 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was...

Box, H. O., Rohrhuber, B. 1993. Differences in behaviour among adult male, female pairs of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in different conditions of housing. Animal Technology 44, 19-30.

Animals living in upper-row cages were more active and engaged in more close contact amicable behavior than animals living in lower-row cages. Those located in the half of the room nearer the window were more...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D. 1992. In-homecage blood collection from conscious stumptailed macaques. Animal Welfare 1(4), 249-255.

Six adult female stumptailed macaques (Macaca aretoides) were trained within a two week period to actively co-operate during in-homecage venipuncture rather than in a restraint apparatus away from the homecage. The training was based on...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Transport-cage training of caged rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 43, 57-61.

A simple training protocol is described which ensures that [most] caged animals readily enter a transport cage.