Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Ehlenbruch, R., Jørgensen, G. H. M., Andersen, I. L., et al. 2010. Provision of additional walls in the resting area - The effects on resting behaviour and social interactions in goats. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 122(1), 35-40.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of providing extra walls, in addition to the already existing pen walls, in the resting area on resting behaviour and social interactions in goats. Twenty-four...

Leland, S. P., West, A. M., Shaver, C. K. et al. 2008. Longitudinal comparison of rates of species-typical behavior of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in an enriched laboratory environment. American Journal of Primatology 70(S1), 51. (31st Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #92)

Behavioral observations were conducted as an ongoing program of monitoring psychological well-being of chimpanzees involved in IACUC-approved preventive medicine studies. The chimpanzees were housed in a facility that provided a variety of enrichment objects, climbing...

Kuhar, C. W., Smith, K., Soltis, J. 2008. The visitor effect on apes: real or imaginary? Enriching or stressful? American Journal of Primatology 70(S1), 23 (31st Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #8).

The “visitor effect” problem, whether zoo visitors are stressful or enriching to zoo animals, is made difficult to analyze by numerous methodological challenges. The extremes in visitor attendance patterns during the holiday season at Disney’s...

Iredale, S. K., Nevill, C. H., Lutz, C. K. 2008. The influence of observer presence on the behavior of singly housed baboons (Papio sp.) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 70(S1), 29. (31st Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #28)

Live, direct observations are often used to collect behavioral data. However, the presence of an observer may affect the behavior of unhabituated subjects. This study was conducted to determine the effect of an observer’s presence...

Schütz, K. E., Cox, N. R., Matthews, L. R. 2008. How important is shade to dairy cattle? Choice between shade or lying following different levels of lying deprivation. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 114(3-4), 307-318 .

Provision of shade to dairy cattle in summer can alleviate negative effects of heat stress. The aim of this study was to investigate the relative importance of shade to lactating dairy cows in different ambient...

Nowak, R., Porter, R. H., Blache, D. et al. 2008. Behavior and welfare of the sheep. In: The Welfare of Sheep. Dwyer, C. M. (ed). Springer, New York, NY.

The most important features of the behaviour of sheep are their marked sociality and the bond formation between mother and young. Sheep show a strong need to stay with their group (or subgroup for some...

Hawkins, P., Hubrecht, R., Buckwell, A. et al. 2008. Refining Rabbit Care: A Resource for Those Working With Rabbits in Research. UFAW/RSPCA: Southwater, UK, 27 pp.

The report sets out how to provide: optimal enclosure characteristicsand size; social housing; solid flooring and substrate; raised areas; refuges; gnawing objects and dietary enrichment; positive interaction with humans; toys and objects to manipulate; for...

Lidfors, L., Edström, T., Lindberg, L. 2007. The welfare of laboratory rabbits. In: The Welfare of Laboratory Animals, volume 2. Kaliste, E. (Ed), 211-243. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Very useful review of species-adequate housing recommendations for rabbits.

Conour, L. A., Murray, K. A., Brown, M. J. 2006. Preparation of animals for research -- Issues to consider for rodents and rabbits. ILAR Journal 47(4), 283-293.

This article provides details to consider when preparing to use animals in biomedical research. The stress of transport and receipt of animals into a new environment mandate the need for a period of stabilization and...

Kulpa-Eddy, J. A., Taylor, S., Adams, K. M. 2005. USDA perspectives on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR Journal 46(2), 83-94.

This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of...

Reinhardt, V. 2003. Legal loophole for subminimal floor area for caged macaques. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(1), 53-56.

The USDA regulations pertaining to the minimum space requirements of nonhuman primates and the fitting of elevated resting surfaces are contradictory. They implicitly condone the prevailing perch design that allows maximal usage of animal room...

Reinhardt, V. 2002. The myth of the aggressive monkey. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 5(4), 321-330.

Captive rhesus macaques are not intrinsically aggressive, but poor husbandry and handling practices can trigger their aggression towards conspecifics and towards the human handler. The statement 'rhesus macaques are so aggressive animals' is probably based...

Reinhardt, V. 2001. The impossible housing and handling conditions of monkeys in research laboratories. IPPL [International Protection League] News 28(2), 5-7.

The prevailing housing and handling conditions of monkeys in research institutions is described. The present situation in primate research laboratories strongly suggests that professional judgment is no guarantee that the inhumane housing and handling conditions...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. The lower row monkey cage: An overlooked variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(2), 141-149.

A survey of 96 primatological articles revealed that cage location of research monkeys is usually not mentioned (98%), in spite of the fact that the environment of upper- and lower-row housed animals markedly differs in...

Menke, C., Waiblinger, S., Fölsch, D. W. et al. 1999. Social behaviour and injuries of horned cows in loose housing systems. Animal Welfare 8, 243-258.

The results of the present study show that keeping horned dairy cows in loose housing systems is possible without unacceptable risks for cows and humans. However, it is absolutely necessary to optimize herd management conditions...

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Warniment, A., Brent, L. 1997. Abnormal behavior in a captive chimpanzee colony. The Newsletter 8(3), 1-3.

The purpose of this study was to link abnormal behaviors often expressed by chimpanzees living in captive environments to factors related to their care and housing. Individuals who had spent more time with their mothers...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Species-adequate housing and handling conditions for Old World nonhuman primates kept in research institutions. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 85-93. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

Practical recommendations to address five basic characteristics of Old World primates in the laboratory setting: a) social disposition, b) semi-arboreal lifestyle, c) complex living environment, d) intelligence, e) sensitivity to distress.

Pecenko, N. 1997. Visitors as an environmental enrichment. In: Proceedings on the International Conference on Environmental Enrichment. Holst, B. (ed), 325-33. Copenhagen Zoo, Frederiksberg, DK.

Because of the influence in behaviour, we can say that visitors are a kind of environmental enrichment. .... Sometimes visitors have a negative effect (increase of aggressive behaviour, begging for food) and in some cases...

Kuhar, C. W. 1997. Space use and behavior patterns of captive chimpanzees in a large indoor enclosure. The Newsletter 9(1), 1-4.

The purpose of this study is to consider space use patterns of a single group of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed in an indoor exhibit at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. This report summarizes results from...

Buchanan-Smith, H. M. 1997. Considerations for the housing and handling of New World primates in the laboratory. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 75-84. Animal Welfare Institute: Washington, DC.

Caretakers should seek knowledge of the natural lifestyles of the primates in their charge, and attempt to reproduce in the captive environment the salient aspects of the natural habitats that are biologically relevant to the...

Burge, T., Panoussis, B., Weber, H. 1997. Primate housing facilities for pharmaceutical research in Switzerland (an example). Primate Report 49, 19-22.

According to the Swiss Animal Welfare Legislation, the minimal enclosure area for macaques of the size of rhesus or cynomolgus monkeys for experimental purposes is 15 cubic meters. In such an enclosure up to 5...

Reinhardt, V., Liss, C., Stevens, C. 1996. Space requirement stipulations for caged non-human primates in the United States: A critical review. Animal Welfare 5(4), 361-372 .

Cage space requirements for non-human primates in the United States of America are less than those in European countries. Studies in support of the assumption that the US legal minimum cage size provides adequate space...

Kessel, A. L., Brent, L. 1996. Space utilization by captive-born baboons (Papio sp.) before and after provision of structural enrichment. Animal Welfare 5(1), 37-44.

Eight baboon groups (Papio sp.) were observed for over one hundred scan samples both before and after the provision of structural enrichment. Additions to their home-cage included a galvanized ladder suspended horizontally by chains and...