Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Jarvis, K. A., Gould, J. E. 2007. Effects of a complex enrichment device on stereotypic behaviors, tool use, tool manufacturing, and activity budgets in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 51. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #44)

As a way to reduce abnormal behaviors, specifically finger-sucking, hair-pulling, and reingestion/regurgitation, observed in two male gorillas at The ZOO Northwest Florida, a complex enrichment device that was contingent on the gorilla's ability to use...

Higley, J. D., Davis, E., Woodward, R. A. et al. 2007. Self-injurious behavior in rhesus macaques: early history and present factors and the role of the serotonin system. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 39. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #21)

Self-injurious behavior (SIB) is a problem of virtually all nonhuman primate research facilities. Its incidence varies between institutions and with the strictness of the criteria that are used. Nevertheless, it is widely agreed that several...

Henderson, J., Coleman, K., Bethea, C. L. 2007. Alterations in the serotonin system of monkeys exhibiting self-injurious behaviors. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 40. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #22)

Self-injurious behavior (SIB) presents a serious problem in laboratory macaques that cannot be socially housed for scientific reasons. Pharmaceutical treatments that alter the serotonin (5HT) system have sometimes proven effective in alleviating SIB in both...

Griffis, C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Baker, K. C. et al. 2007. Abnormal behavior as a factor of compliance with positive reinforcement training for singly-housed adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 93. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #128)

Positive reinforcement training is an important element of behavioral management programs for nonhuman primates. However, more empirical information is needed to determine whether animals identified for intervention will engage in such training, affecting the amount...

Fontenot, M. B., Anderson, G. M. 2007. Fluoxetine dose finding study for treatment of self-injurious behavior in Macaca mulatta. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 48. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #38)

Based on clinical efficacy in the short-term treatment of self-injurious behavior in macaques, we performed a dose-finding study to establish optimal doses of fluoxetine (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor). The subjects were 11 male (aged 7...

Crockett, C. M., Bentson, K. L., Bellanca, R. U. 2007. Alopecia and overgrooming in laboratory monkeys vary by species but not sex, suggesting a different etiology than self-biting. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 87. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #117)

Alopecia in laboratory monkeys can result from overgrooming (OG), medical conditions, or hormonal variation. Because hair loss is visible, disproportionate intervention may be expected relative to other indicators of potentially compromised well-being. Two analyses (α=0.05)...

Tiefenbacher, S., Fahey, M. A., Rowlett, J. K. et al. 2005. The efficacy of diazepam treatment for the management of acute wounding episodes in captive rhesus macaques. Comparative Medicine 55(4), 387-392.

This study examined the effects of diazepam (Valium) on self-wounding and other abnormal behaviors in eight individually housed male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Each monkey's response to an anxiolytic dose of diazepam (1 mg/kg or...

Taylor, D. K., Bass, T., Flory, G. S. et al. 2005. Use of low-dose chlorpromazine in conjunction with environmental enrichment to eliminate self-injurious behavior in a rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). Comparative Medicine 55(3), 282-288.

A 7-year-old, captive-bred, female rhesus macaque was placed in a quarantine facility upon arrival at our institution. At release from quarantine, she was observed pawing at and chewing on her left cheek. ... SIB in...

Skoumbourdis, E. K., Potratz, K. 2005. Diazepam is more effective than midazolam when used as an aid in chair training non-human primates. American Journal of Primatology 66(S1), 164. (28th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #176)

Non-human primates (NHPs) are utilized frequently in biomedical research and can be difficult and sometimes dangerous to handle. Because of this, restraint is sometimes necessary for data collection. Restraint chair training is generally a straightforward...

Kulpa-Eddy, J. A., Taylor, S., Adams, K. M. 2005. USDA perspectives on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR Journal 46(2), 83-94.

This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of...

Fontenot, M. B., Padgett, E. E., Dupuy, A. M. et al. 2005. The effects of fluoxetine and buspirone on self-injurious and stereotypic behavior in adult male rhesus macaques. Comparative Medicine 55(1), 67-74.

Fluoxetine and buspirone were significantly effective in reducing rates of self-biting during treatment weeks 1 to 8 and self-directed stereotypic behavior during weeks 5 to 12 and post-treatment. No significant effect of either treatment on...

Barley, J. B., Bell, L., Duff, R. et al. 2004. Working with pound dogs in the research laboratory: a discussion by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 3(3), 165-167.

To summarize, working with pound dogs is emotionally more challenging but at the same time often more rewarding than working with purpose-bred dogs. The affectionate human attachment is a warranty for the pound dog to...

Mikkelsen, L. F., Bentsen, H., Gerlach, B. 2003. The restraint platform - refinement of long term restraining of dogs for experimental procedures. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 30(4), 217-219.

This short communication describes a new method for the long term restraining of dogs for experimental procedures like multiple blood sampling. The newly developed platform offers the dog a choice either to lie down, sit...

Reinhardt, V., Rossell, M. 2001. Self-biting in caged macaques: Cause, effect and treatment. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 4, 285-294.

In the United States, there are an estimated 15,000 individually caged macaques. If 10% of these animals exhibit visible injuries resulting from self-biting and another 10% show unnoticed self-biting behavior, then about 3,000 animals (20%)...

Philbin, N. 1998. Towards an understanding of stereotypic behaviour in laboratory macaques. Animal Technology 49, 19-33.

Comprehensive discussion and review of the possible causes of stereotypic behaviour in laboratory macaques. A great deal of debate and controversy has surrounded what does does and does not constitute psychological well-being in primates [p...

Schnell, C. R., Gerber, P. 1997. Training and remote monitoring of cardiovascular parameters in non-human primates. Primate Report 49, 61-70.

The use of "pre-invasive" implantable radio telemetry has revolutionized the collection of physiological data under stress-free conditions. It is now possible to measure accurately 'normal' baseline data of haemodynamic and electrical parameters in conscious and...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Pecenko, N. 1997. Visitors as an environmental enrichment. In: Proceedings on the International Conference on Environmental Enrichment. Holst, B. (ed), 325-33. Copenhagen Zoo, Frederiksberg, DK.

Because of the influence in behaviour, we can say that visitors are a kind of environmental enrichment. .... Sometimes visitors have a negative effect (increase of aggressive behaviour, begging for food) and in some cases...

Burghardt, G. M., Ward, B., Rosscoe, R. 1996. Problem of reptile play: Environmental enrichment and play behavior in a captive Nile soft‐shelled turtle, Trionyx triunguis. Zoo Biology 15(3), 223-238.

Giving captive animals the opportunity to interact with objects in a “playful” manner is often considered a method of environmental enrichment. However, the occurrence of play in nonavian reptiles is controversial and poorly documented. Similarly...

Reinhardt, V., Liss, C., Stevens, C. 1995. Restraint methods of laboratory non-human primates: A critical review. Animal Welfare 4(3), 221-238 .

Published information provides scientific evidence that traditional, involuntary restraint techniques of research non-human primates are intrinsically a source of distress resulting from fear. It has been documented that common methods of enforced restraint result in...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Traditional handling procedures of laboratory nonhuman primates are an intrinsic source of distress: What can be done? In Touch 1(4), 1 & 6-7.

With some professional expertise and goodwill, there should be no real need to resort to forceful restraint when doing research with nonhuman primates.

Luttrell, L., Acker, L., Urben, M. et al. 1994. Training a large troop of rhesus macaques to co-operate during catching: Analysis of the time investment. Animal Welfare 3(2), 135-140.

This study demonstrates that only a minimal time investment was needed to train a large troop of laboratory non-human primates to co-operate in the catching procedure. A group of 45 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Transport-cage training of caged rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 43, 57-61.

A simple training protocol is described which ensures that [most] caged animals readily enter a transport cage.

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Environmental enhancement plan for previously single-caged adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Technology 43, 115-119.

To promote the well-being of previously single-caged adult (older than 5 years) rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and the quality of research done with them, the following environmental enhancement plan has been developed and implemented at...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Are rhesus macaques really so aggressive? International Zoo News 39(1), 14-19.

Several years of experience with pair housing of previously single-caged adult rhesus macaques and venipuncture in the home cage of cooperative, non-resisting animals lead the author to conclude that rhesus macaques are not as aggressive...