Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Neubauer, T., Betts, T., Evans, C. 2011. The use of enrichment to facilitate data collection in a pig study. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 762-763 (Abstract #P80).

Recently a researcher approached our large animal facility manager about housing 19, 2-mo-old piglets and assisting with data collection. Part of the protocol required that the piglets be fed an individually measured high-sugar/high-fat diet over...

Bennett, K. J., Hill, V. A., Brock, K. et al. 2011. Enhanced canine enrichment and its effects on staff morale. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 772 (Abstract #P123).

The use of dogs in research has been under increasing public scrutiny and criticism over the past several years, and our institution has been no exception. Of particular concern is the use of Class B...

Averós, X., Brossard, L., Dourmad, J. et al. 2010. A meta-analysis of the combined effect of housing and environmental enrichment characteristics on the behaviour and performance of pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 127(3-4), 73-85.

To quantify the combined effect of housing conditions and environmental enrichment on the behaviour and performance of pigs, a meta-analysis was performed using information from 45 experiments in 42 published manuscripts. Multiple regression models were...

Arblaster, F. 2010. Clicker training in minipigs. Animal Technology and Welfare 9, 115-118.

Clicker training minipigs provides a significant improvement in the dermal dosing procedures.

Watts, A. 2010. Thinking outside the box in box training. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(2), 3.

At the Oregon National Primate Research Center, we train animals to enter transfer boxes using positive reinforcement training (PRT), a type of training in which the trainer reinforces desired behaviors (such asentering the transfer box)...

Moreau, E. 2010. To squeeze or not to squeeze? A Discussion on LAREF, September, 2009. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 49(2), 3-4.

The discussion was started by the following questions: "Is the squeeze-back mechanism more or less stressful than the pole and collar system for removing a macaque from his cage for an IM (intramuscular) injection?" and...

Minier, D. E., Tatum, L., McCowan, B. 2010. Human-directed contra-aggression training using positive reinforcement for indoor-housed rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 53. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #87)

The quality of human-animal interactions can be an indicator of well-being in laboratory primates and increased anxiety-related behavior, such as aggression, may compromise an animal’s ability to provide research outcomes reflective of normal function. The...

McMillan, J. L., Galvan, A., Wichmann, T. et al. 2010. The use of positive reinforcement during pole and collar training of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 705-706 (Abstract #P78).

The pole and collar method enables safe transfer of a monkey from their home environment to a restraint chair without sedation. The ability to conduct procedures with a conscious and cooperative subject is cost effective...

Martin, A. L., Franklin, A. N., Bloomsmith, M. A. 2010. Improving the efficiency of positive reinforcement training by testing food item preference. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 27. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #6)

Positive reinforcement training relies on identifying an effective reinforcing consequence, often food, to be presented contingent on the performance of the desired behavior. Prior to training sessions, we used a multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO)...

Haba Nelsen, S. L., Bradford, D., Houghton, P. 2010. Laser lixit training: An alternative form of target training that can be utilized in the daily husbandry care of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 27. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #5)

Rhesus and cynomolgus macaques are some of the most frequently utilized laboratory nonhuman primates, and it is common for one facility to have a significantly large colony of either or both species. Daily care needs...

Egeler, J. L., Hoekwater, S., Hoffman, H. D. 2010. Operant training differences between male and female group-housed nonhuman primates. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 660 (Abstract #PS17).

Operant training of animals is a widely accepted practice for training or conditioning animals to cooperate with technical procedures or perform certain tasks in a laboratory setting. This type of training has been proven to...

Egeler, J. L. 2010. Operant training differences between male and female group-housed nonhuman primates. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(6), page numbers missing.

Operant training of animals is a widely accepted practice to train or condition animals to cooperate with technical procedures or perform certain tasks in a laboratory setting. This type of training has been proven to...

Coleman, K., Maier, A. 2010. The use of positive reinforcement training to reduce stereotypic behavior in rhesus macaques. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 124(3-4), 142-148.

Stereotypic behavior is a pervasive problem for captive monkeys and other animals. Once this behavior pattern has started, it can be difficult to alleviate. We tested whether or not using positive reinforcement training (PRT) can...

Pell, C., Armellino, K., Williams, A. et al. 2010. Swine enrichment techniques that increase efficiency and promote animal welfare in the laboratory environment. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 716 (Abstract #P109).

Obtaining accurate body weights for swine is important for calculating anesthetic drug dosages as well as an indicator used for tracking overall health. Scales used for acquiring such weights require that the pigs stand still...

Pluijmakers, J. J. T. M., Appleby, D. L., Bradshaw, J. W. S. 2010. Exposure to video images between 3 and 5 weeks of age decreases neophobia in domestic dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 126(1-2), 51-58.

Restricted experience in early life is known to contribute to long-lasting predispositions to fear and anxiety in mammals. It is commonplace for young domestic dogs not to experience many features of the environment in which...

Jensen, M. B., Studnitz, M., Pedersen, L. J. 2010. The effect of type of rooting material and space allowance on exploration and abnormal behaviour in growing pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 123(3-4), 87-92.

The experiment aimed to investigate the effect of type of rooting material and space allowance on explorative and abnormal behaviour in growing pigs. Thirty-six pens with partly slatted concrete floor were allocated to one of...

Burgess, W., French, E. D., Kendall, L. V. 2010. A socialization program to improve research dog adoption rates. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 714 (Abstract #P104).

Investigators using companion animals for research are often faced with the dilemma of what to do with healthy animals when a study is complete. At our institution, it is not uncommon for investigators to submit...

Brodersen, T., Glerup, P., Mølgaard, S. et al. 2010. The use of positive reinforcement with Göttinger minipigs. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 721-722 (Abstract #P128).

Experimental procedures, such as dosing, weighing, and physical exams are usual parameters included in nonclinical safety and efficacy studies using laboratory animals. Many of these procedures are often associated with discomfort for the animals and...

Baker, K. C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Neu, K. et al. 2010. Positive reinforcement training as enrichment for singly housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 19(3), 307-313.

Positive reinforcement training is one component of behavioural management employed to improve psychological well-being. There has been regulatory promotion to compensate for restricted social housing in part by providing human interaction to singly caged primates...

Lee, S., Su, H. 2009. Applications of positive reinforcement training in captive orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopsis). American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 34. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #16)

PRT is a good way of shaping the behavior of captive animals and doing so can make the animals less stressed to promote their well being. PRT is commonly used by captive animal organizations in...

Fernström, A. L., Fredlund, H., Spångberg, M. et al. 2009. Positive reinforcement training in rhesus macaques - training progress as a result of training frequency. American Journal of Primatology 71(5), 373-379.

Positive reinforcement training (PRT) efficiency was examined as a function of training frequency in 33 pair- or triple-housed female rhesus macaques. The animals were trained three times a week, once a day or twice a...

Clay, A. W., Bloomsmith, M. A., Jackson Marr, M. et al. 2009. Habituation and desensitization as methods for reducing fearful behavior in singly housed rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 71(1), 30-39.

Operant conditioning using positive reinforcement techniques has been used extensively in the management of nonhuman primates in both zoological and laboratory settings. This research project was intended to test the usefulness of counter-conditioning techniques in...

Brunelli, R. L., Gottlieb, D., Holcomb, K. et al. 2009. Effects of positive reinforcement training on infant behavioral development in nursery-reared rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 74. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #136)

At the California National Primate Research Center, one key to long-term success of macaque breeding colonies is to develop effective infant-rearing strategies that minimize the emergence of behavioral pathologies, which can be one indicator of...

Branson, E. J. (Ed.) 2008. Fish Welfare. Blackwell Publishing Ltd: Oxford, UK, 300 p.

Fish have the same stress response and powers of nociception as mammals. Their behavioural responses to a variety of situations suggest a considerable ability for higher level neural processing – a level of consciousness equivalent...

Barley, J., Mikkelsen, L. F., Francis, R. et al. 2007. Enforced restraint of rodents: A discussion by the Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 6(1), 11-13.

The question was asked: "Rodents are often restrained for data collection procedures, such as blood collection and injection, by coaxing them into tubes, for example syringe cylinders or perspex tubes. What can be done to...