Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Schachter, S. 1959. The Psychology of Affiliation. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA.

People do serve a direct anxiety reducing function for one another, they comfort and support, they reassure one another and attempt to bolster courage. [p 26]

Russell, W. M. S. , Burch, R. L. 1959. The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. Methuen & Co., London, UK.

The wages of inhumanity are paid in ambiguous or otherwise unsatisfactory experimental results. The authors introduce the concept of the 3 Rs, i.e. Replacement, Reduction, Refinement. Desirable as replacement is, it would be a mistake...

Gaddini, R. , Gaddini, E. 1959. Rumination in infancy. In: Dynamic Psychopathology in Childhood. Jessner, C. , Pavenshidt, E. (eds), 166-185. Grune & Stratton, New York, NY.
Cope, F. W., Polis, B. D. 1959. Increased plasma glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase activity in monkeys due to nonspecific stress effect. Journal of Aviation Medicine 30, 90-94.

There can be a rise in SGO-T [serum glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase] in monkeys due to nonspecific stress such a fright, handling or clinical procedures.

Seitz, P. F. D. 1959. Infantile experience and adult behaviour in animal subjects. II. Age of separation from the mother and adult behaviour in the cat. Psychosomatic Medicine 21, 353-378.

Cats weaned prematurely and raised in isolation show behavioral deficits as adults, e.g., disorganized behavior, excessive fear of novel situations.

Chance, M. R. A. 1959. Structure of the social bond in primates. International Congress of Zoology - Proceedings 15, 860-862 .
Bovard, E. W. 1959. The effects of social stimuli on response to stress . Psychological Review 66, 267-277.

Taken together, these studies at the human and animal levels suggest that the presence of another animal of the same species has a protective effect under stress (p. 269).

Mason, J. W. 1958. Restraining chair for the experimental study of primates. Journal of Applied Physiology 12, 130-133.

Restraint chair is described. A major question to be answered in evaluating the usefulness of this technique concerns the possible 'stressful' effect of the situation itself.

Isaac, W., DeVito, J. L. 1958. Effect of sensory stimulation on the activity of normal and prefrontal-lobectomized monkeys. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 51, 172-174.

The level of activity of both groups [single-housed test subjects] was positively related to the level of room illumination.

Darby, C. L., Riopelle, A. J. 1958. Observational learning in the rhesus monkey. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 51, 23-31.

Performance of learning tasks by rhesus monkeys is facilitated when tested with a partner compared to being tested alone

Mykytowycz, R. 1958. Social behaviour of an experimental colony of wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.) 1. Establishment of the colony. CSIRO Wildlife Research 3, 7-25.

Description of natural social behaviors and social relationships in rabbits.

Grant, E. C., Chance, M. R. A. 1958. Rank order in caged rats. Animal Behaviour 6, 183-194.

Rank-related conflicts are not common in caged rats

Cooper, R. M., Zubek, J. P. 1958. Effects of enriched and restricted early environments on the learning ability of bright and dull rats. Canadian Journal of Psychology 12, 159-164.

The bright animals reared in enriched environments [group-housing with numerous enrichment gadgets] showed no improvement in learning ability over bright controls reared under normal laboratory condition [group-housing in barren cage]. The dull animals, on the...

Smith, C. C., Ansevin, A. 1957. Blood pressure of the normal rhesus monkey. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 96, 428-432.

Most [single-housed] monkeys could be trained to sit quietly during blood pressure measurements. [Training protocol is not described.]

Gay, W. I. 1957. Husbandry practices for the quarantining and conditioning of sub-human primates. Proceedings of the Animal Care Panel 7, 83-88.

Conventional double-tier caging system with dark lower-rows is documented.

Conger, J. J., Sawrey, W. L., Turrell, E. S. 1957. An experimental investigation of the role of social experience in the production of gastric ulcers in hooded rats. American Psychologist 12, 410 (Abstract).

Rats in a chronic approach-avoidance conflict situation alone had significantly greater resultant ulceration than animals tested together.

Chance, M. R. A. 1957. The contribution of environment to uniformity: variance control, refinement in pharmacology. Laboratory Animals Bureau, Collected Papers 6, 59-73.

Chance discovered that some environments are more favourable to uniformity than others . The most uniform populations of all were those kept in an environment optimal for their well-being. In this respect, the goal of...

Miller, R. E., Murphy, J. V. 1956. Social interactions of rhesus monkeys. II. Effects of social interaction on the learning of discrimination tasks. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 49, 207-211.

Performance of learning tasks by rhesus monkeys is facilitated when tested with a partner compared to being tested alone.

Ives, M., Dack, G. M. 1956. Alarm reaction and normal blood picture in Macaca mulatta. Journal of Laboratory Clinical Medicine 47, 723-729.

Authors observed an elevated White Blood Cell Count as alarm reaction to physical restraint in rhesus monkeys.

Ruegamer, W. R., Silverman, F. R. 1956. Influence of gentling on physiology of the rat. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 92, 170-174.

Handled animals tended to have greater skeletal length than control animals.

Chance, M. R. A. 1956. Social structure of a colony of Macaca muylatta. Animal Behaviour 4, 1-13.
Chance, M. R. A. 1956. Environmental factors influencing gonadotrophin assay in the rat. Nature 177, 228-229.

The variation in ovary weight (test response) was greater if the cages were small, if there was frequent disturbance by changing cages and cage-mates, and if the rats were caged either singly or in groups...

Schein, M. W., Fohrman, M. H. 1955. Social dominance relationships in a herd of dairy cattle. Animal Behaviour 3, 45-55.
Schein, M. W., Hyde, C. E., Fohrman, M. H. 1955. The effect of psychological disturbance on milk production in dairy cattle. Proceedings of the Association of Southern Agricultural Workers 52nd Convention, 79-88.

The introduction of dairy cows to unfamiliar groups typically is accompanied by high agonistic tension and a reduction of productivity.

Davitz, J. R., Mason, D. J. 1955. Socially facilitated reduction of a fear response in rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 48, 149-151.

The presence of a conspecific mediates fear responses to a stressful situation.