Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Schapiro, S. J., Bernacky, B. J. 2011. Socialization strategies and disease transmission in captive colonies of nonhuman primates. American Journal of Primatology 74(6), 518-527.

In captive research environments for nonhuman primates (NHP), social housing strategies are often in conflict with protocols designed to minimize disease transmission. This is particularly true in breeding colonies, and is especially relevant when attempting...

Williams, R. C., Nash, L. T., Scarry, C. J. et al. 2010. Factors affecting wounding aggression in a colony of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Zoo Biology 29(3), 351-364.

Previous research has suggested that chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) display higher levels of aggression in captivity than in the wild. One of the challenges of captive management, therefore, is to balance the chimpanzees' need for social...

Taylor K. 2010. Reporting the implementation of the three Rs in European primate and mouse research papers: Are we making progress? Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 38(6), 495-517.

It is now more than 20 years since both Council of Europe Convention ETS123 and EU Directive 86/609/EEC were introduced, to promote the implementation of the Three Rs in animal experimentation and to provide guidance...

Lee, D. R., Ely, J. J. 2009. Welfare and housing of chimpanzees in captive settings. American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 105. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #230)

Advances in facility design, healthcare, and other strategies have produced an excellent quality of life for chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in biomedical research. Historically, many facilities housed chimpanzees individually or in small groups (2–3 animals). Laboratory...

Animal Research Review Panel. 2006. Animal Research Review Panel Guideline 21: Guidelines for the Housing of Guinea Pigs in Scientific Institutions. New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Orange, NSW, 55 pp.

Valuable recommendations for the species-adequate housing and species-approriate care of guinea pigs; topics include Housing (enclosure size, substrate, shelter, nesting material), Environmental Enrichment, and Husbandry (light, temperature, humidity, cleaning).

Conour, L. A., Murray, K. A., Brown, M. J. 2006. Preparation of animals for research -- Issues to consider for rodents and rabbits. ILAR Journal 47(4), 283-293.

This article provides details to consider when preparing to use animals in biomedical research. The stress of transport and receipt of animals into a new environment mandate the need for a period of stabilization and...

Nelson, R. J., Mandrell, T. D. 2005. Enrichment and nonhuman primates: "First, do no harm". ILAR Journal 46(2), 171-177.

Since the 1998 publication of The Psychological Well-Being of Nonhuman Primates by the National Research Council, and the 1991 implementation of the 1985 Animal Welfare Act Amendment, many formal and informal nonhuman primate enrichment programs...

Lutz, C. K., Novak, M. 2005. Environmental enrichment for nonhuman primates: Theory and application. ILAR Journal 46(2), 178-191.

Only social contact satisfies the goal of promoting a wide variety of species-typical activities while at the same time reducing or preventing the development of abnormal behavior... A number of toys should be provided initially...

Kulpa-Eddy, J. A., Taylor, S., Adams, K. M. 2005. USDA perspectives on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR Journal 46(2), 83-94.

This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of...

Hutchinson, E., Avery, A., Van de Woude, S. 2005. Environmental enrichment for laboratory rodents. ILAR Journal 46(2), 148-161.

In this article, laws and guidelines relating to rodent enrichment are reviewed, the natural behaviors of select rodent species are discussed, and an overview of widely used types of enrichment in laboratory rodent management is...

Bloomsmith, M. A., Else, J. G. 2005. Behavioral management of chimpanzees in biomedical research facilities. ILAR Journal 46(2), 192-201.

The current status of the behavioral management of chimpanzees housed in US research facilities is examined, and recent advances are described. Behavioral management includes the application of environmental enrichment, animal training, and environmental design for...

Banjanin, S., Barley, J., Bell, L. et al. 2004. Environmental enrichment for guinea pigs: A Discussion by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 3(3), 161-163.

The question was raised how the environment of guinea pigs can be best enriched in the research laboratory setting. In summary, social-housing is the most species-appropriate living environment for guinea pigs. If a research protocol...

Reinhardt, V. 2004. Flaws in federal regulations pertaining to the welfare of primates kept in research institutions. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 7(4), 273-276.

Federal welfare regulations for primates kept in research laboratories fail (1) to include recommendations pertaining to the legal requirement of the avoidance of stress and unnecessary discomfort during handling procedures, (2) to specify how the...

National Research Council. 2003. Guidelines for the Care and Use of Mammals in Neuroscience and Behavioral Research. National Academic Press: Washington, DC, 223 pp.

Expanding on the National Research Council’s Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, this book deals specifically with mammals in neuroscience and behavioral research laboratories. It offers flexible guidelines for the care of...

National Health and Medical Research Council [NHMRC] Animal Welfare Committee. 2003. Policy on the Care and Use of Non-Human Primates for Scientific Purposes. National Health and Medical Research Council: Canberra, Australia.
Raje, S. S., Stewart, K. L. 2000. Group housing female guinea pigs. Lab Animal 29(8), 31-32.

Group housing [female] guinea pigs can save space and money, while improving housing standards. The authors describe enclosure design, enrichments, and husbandry techniques that facilitate group housing female guinea pigs. No data are included in...

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Warniment, A., Brent, L. 1997. Abnormal behavior in a captive chimpanzee colony. The Newsletter 8(3), 1-3.

The purpose of this study was to link abnormal behaviors often expressed by chimpanzees living in captive environments to factors related to their care and housing. Individuals who had spent more time with their mothers...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

van Akker, R., Balls, M., Eichberg, J. W. et al. 1994. Chimpanzees in AIDS research: A biomedical and bioethical perspective. Journal of Medical Primatology 23, 49-51.

The present article represents a consensus view of the appropriate utilization of chimpanzees in AIDS research arrived at as a result of a meeting of a group of scientists involved in AIDS research with chimpanzees...

Fouts, R. S., Fouts, D. H., Jensvold, M. L. A. et al. 1994. An enriching approach to captive chimpanzee care. In Touch 1(1), 1 & 4-8.

The social environment [which includes the care providers] is perhaps the most critical factor in chimpanzee well-being, more important even than designs of the living space.

Visalberghi, E., Anderson, J. R. 1993. Reasons and risks associated with manipulating captive primates' social environments. Animal Welfare 2(1), 3-15 .

Review of the implications of experimental or management-related manipulations of the social environment of captive primates for the animals' welfare. Relatively little empirical work has been done on the effects of manipulation of the social...

Swett, W. W. 1993. The resocialization and rehabilitation of humanized and abused primates. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 440-443.

Author presents case histories of Primarily Primate's treatment of individual primates with problems common to humanized and abused primates. Among the methods effectively used were gradual introduction to other primates, (sometimes with the use of...

Fritz, J., Howell, S. M. 1993. Psychological wellness for captive chimpanzees: An evaluative program. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 426-434.

Authors describe the "Wellness Program" of the Primate Foundation of Arizona (PFA) devoted to producing physically and behaviorally normal chimpanzees. Psychological well-being is a major focus. In this paper, the authors present protocols specific to...

Novak, M. A., Suomi, S. J. 1989. Psychological well-being of primates in captivity. ILAR Journal 31(3), 5-15.

Recent amendments to the Animal Welfare Act will, upon taking effect, require that researchers who maintain nonhuman primates in captivity house their animals in such a way as to “promote their psychological well-being.” Unfortunately, no...