Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Egeler, J. L., Hoekwater, S., Hoffman, H. D. 2010. A novel approach for utilizing large group-housing style cages for nonhuman primates in toxicology studies. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 716 (Abstract #P110).

The ability to provide permanent group-housed caging for nonhuman primates involved in toxicology research is quickly becoming an important step in improving the overall quality of life for these animals. This type of caging offers...

Veillette, M., Reebs, S. G. 2010. Preference of Syrian hamsters to nest in old versus new bedding. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 125(3-4), 189-194.

This study tested whether Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) have an aversion to old bedding (up to 14 days) by offering them the option to nest in a new cage. A secondary goal was to assess...

Harkness, J. E., Turner, P. V., Vande Woude, S. et al. 2010. Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents (5th Ed.). Wiley-Blackwell, Ames, Iowa.

The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents provides concise, up - to - date, reasonably comprehensive information to anyone concerned with the health, care, and management of rabbits and rodents. The book is intended...

Bennett, A. J., Corcoran, C. A., Hardy, V. A. et al. 2010. Multidimensional cost-benefit analysis to guide evidence-based environmental enrichment: Providing bedding and foraging substrate to pen-housed monkeys. JAALAS 49(5), 571-577.

Refinement of animal care and housing is an important shared goal - and challenge - of the team of research, veterinary, and animal care personnel charged with ensuring the wellbeing of laboratory animals. This study...

McMillan, J., Perlman, J. E., Martin, A. L. et al. 2009. Behavioral response of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to routine cage washing procedures. American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 33. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #15)

Documenting behavioral effects of routine procedures such as the cage washing process in nonhuman primate facilities is an important step in identifying procedures that may be stressful to the primates, and in determining ways to...

Skoumbourdis, E., Coke Murphy, C. 2009. Studies and snack bites. Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) Quarterly 58(1) Winter, 12-13.

Veterinary technician Evelyn Skoumbourdis and environmental enrichment coordinator Casey Coke Murphy discuss proper feeding of small laboratory mammals.

Camacho, I. N., Schultz, C. 2009. A rational approach to enriched nutrition for nonhuman primates. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 543 (Abstract #PS38).

Obesity is a concern with nonhuman primates (NHPs) housed in captivity for extended periods of time, mostly due to overfeeding and lack of exercise. This is often compounded by environmental enrichment programs that include different...

Ball, R. S. 2006. Issues to consider for preparing ferrets as research subjects in the laboratory. ILAR Journal 47(4), 348-357.

Successful housing requires knowledge of ferret behaviors including social behavior, eating habits, a general inquisitive nature, and a species-typical need to burrow and hide. Regular handling is necessary to maintain well-being. A ferret health care...

Conour, L. A., Murray, K. A., Brown, M. J. 2006. Preparation of animals for research -- Issues to consider for rodents and rabbits. ILAR Journal 47(4), 283-293.

This article provides details to consider when preparing to use animals in biomedical research. The stress of transport and receipt of animals into a new environment mandate the need for a period of stabilization and...

Huntingford, F. A., Adams, C., Braithwaite, V. A. et al. 2006. Current issues in fish welfare. Journal of Fish Biology 68(2), 332-372.

In common with all vertebrates, fish respond to environmental challenges with a series of adaptive neuro‐endocrine adjustments that are collectively termed the stress response. These in turn induce reversible metabolic and behavioural changes that make...

Bayne, K. 2005. Potential for unintended consequences of environmental enrihment for laboratory animals and research results. ILAR Journal 46(2), 129-139.

Many aspects of the research animal's housing environment are controlled for quality and/or standardization. Of recent interest is the potential for environmental enrichment to have unexpected consequences such as unintended harm to the animal, or...

Reinhardt, V. 2002. The myth of the aggressive monkey. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 5(4), 321-330.

Captive rhesus macaques are not intrinsically aggressive, but poor husbandry and handling practices can trigger their aggression towards conspecifics and towards the human handler. The statement 'rhesus macaques are so aggressive animals' is probably based...

Reinhardt, V. 2002. Artificial weaning of Old World monkeys: Benefits and costs. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 5(2), 151-156.

The perceived benefits of permanent, pre-weaning mother-infant separation are not supported by scientific findings. ... As long as there is an excessive number of monkeys and insufficient cage space, there is no ethically legitimate reason...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. The lower row monkey cage: An overlooked variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(2), 141-149.

A survey of 96 primatological articles revealed that cage location of research monkeys is usually not mentioned (98%), in spite of the fact that the environment of upper- and lower-row housed animals markedly differs in...

Guhad, F., Augustsson, H., Hau, J. 1998. The Törneby Primate Facility optimisation of housing conditions for rhesus macaques in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 25(4), 173-176.

Group-housing arrangements for rhesus macaques and husbandry implications are described.

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Buchanan-Smith, H. M. 1997. Considerations for the housing and handling of New World primates in the laboratory. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 75-84. Animal Welfare Institute: Washington, DC.

Caretakers should seek knowledge of the natural lifestyles of the primates in their charge, and attempt to reproduce in the captive environment the salient aspects of the natural habitats that are biologically relevant to the...

Schapiro, S. J., Suarez, S. A., Porter, L. M. et al. 1996. The effects of different types of feeding enhancements on the behaviour of single-caged, yearling rhesus macaques. Animal Welfare 5, 129-138.

Enrichment techniques designed to encourage captive primates to spend more species-appropriate amounts of time in foraging behaviours have been successful. The present study measured the behavioural effects of four feeding enhancements: two devices (mats and...

Capitanio, J. P., Mendoza, S. P., McChesney, M. 1996. Influences of blood sampling procedures on basal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal hormone levels and leukocyte values in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Medical Primatology 25(1), 26-33.

Differences in housing location and the amount of room disturbance associated with blood sampling have a significant impact on cell counts, but not on ACTH or cortisol levels. We believe that the critical factor that...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Caged rhesus macaques voluntarily work for ordinary food. Primates 35, 95-98.

Eight single-caged adult rhesus macaques were given the choice of freely collecting their standard food ration, i.e. 33 biscuits, from an ordinary food box or working for its retrieval from a custom- made food puzzle...

O'Connor, E., Reinhardt, V. 1994. Caged stumptailed macaques voluntarily work for ordinary food. In Touch 1(1), 10-11.

Ninety-nine of the biscuits were placed in a freely accessible dish attached to the mesh of the front of the cage. Thirty-three biscuits were offered in a food puzzle. Twenty-five percent (4/16) of the subjects...

Hilken, G., Willmann, F., Dimigen, J. et al. 1994. Preference of Xenopus leavis for different housing conditions. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 21(2), 71-80.

In this study, the preference of X. laevis for different housing conditions were examined. X. laevis preferred dark backgrounds, a water temperature between 20C-22C and the deeper parts of the test basin. Red earthenware pipe...

Visalberghi, E., Anderson, J. R. 1993. Reasons and risks associated with manipulating captive primates' social environments. Animal Welfare 2(1), 3-15 .

Review of the implications of experimental or management-related manipulations of the social environment of captive primates for the animals' welfare. Relatively little empirical work has been done on the effects of manipulation of the social...

Reinhardt, V. 1993c. Using the mesh ceiling as a food puzzle to encourage foraging behaviour in caged rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 2(2), 165-172.

An attempt was made to encourage more foraging behaviour in eight pair-housed adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). No special device and no special food were used. Daily commercial dry food rations consisting of 33 bar-shaped...