Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Reinhardt, V. 1992. Are rhesus macaques really so aggressive? International Zoo News 39(1), 14-19.

Several years of experience with pair housing of previously single-caged adult rhesus macaques and venipuncture in the home cage of cooperative, non-resisting animals lead the author to conclude that rhesus macaques are not as aggressive...

Ruppenthal, G. C., Walker, C. G., Sackett, G. P. 1991. Rearing infant monkeys (Macaca nemestrina) in pairs produces deficient social development compared with rearing in single cages. American Journal of Primatology 25, 103-113.

Many scientists and colony managers assume that social housing is a beneficial living condition for all captive primates. Several older studies of primate development question the generality of this assumption. We recently tested this assumption...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 1991. Impact of a privacy panel on the behavior of caged female rhesus monkeys living in pairs. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34(2), 55-58.

Thirty paired female rhesus monkeys were tested in a control situation when companions had no privacy, and in an experimental situation when they were offered the option to move behind a panel and be alone...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D., Eisele, S. 1991. Serum cortisol concentrations of single-housed and isosexually pair-housed adult rhesus macaques. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34(2), 73-76.

Possible social distress was evaluated in 20 adult rhesus macaques housed in compatible isosexual pairs (5 female pairs, 5 male pairs) for the purpose of social environmental enrichment. Serum cortisol concentrations of paired animals were...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Social enrichment for aged rhesus monkeys who have lived singly for many years. Animal Technology 43, 173-177.

There is widespread concern that aged rhesus monkeys who have been housed singly for a long time would do better living alone than sharing a cage with a companion. Ten female and five male rhesus...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Impact of venipuncture on physiological research conducted in conscious macaques. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34(5-6), 212-217.

A survey of 397 publications dealing with macaques was conducted. Stress-sensitive physiological data collected during venipuncture were evaluated in 58 reports. Despite of the fact that venipuncture often is a stressful event for research animals...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Group formation of previously single-caged adult rhesus macaques for the purpose of environmental enrichment. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34, 110-115.

An attempt was made to form two groups of 6 previously single-caged adult female and 6 previously single-caged adult male rhesus macaques. The study was based on the premise that simultaneous introduction of familiar animals...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D., Scheffler, J. et al. 1990. Cortisol response of female rhesus monkeys to venipuncture in homecage versus venipuncture in restraint apparatus. Journal of Medical Primatology 19, 601-606.

All subjects were well habituated to blood collection, and it was not necessary to immobilize them; they readily presented a leg for venipuncture. In single monkeys venipunctured in the restraint apparatus, cortisol concentrations were on...

Poole, T. B. 1990. Environmental enrichment for marmosets. Animal Technology 41(2), 81-86.

Marmosets are among the easiest of primates to provide with environmental enrichment. Like other higher primates, they need companionship, adequate space with incorporated complexity, some unpredictability in the environment, ways in which they can manipulate...

Reinhardt, V., Houser, W. D., Cowley, D. et al. 1989. Alternatives to single caging of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) used in research. Zeitschrift für Versuchstierkunde [Journal of Experimental Animal Science] 32, 275-279.

Single-housed rhesus macaques were transferred to permanent pair-housing arrangements. The present investigation also demonstrates that pairing caged rhesus monkeys with compatible conspecifics does not interfere with a number of common research protocols [e.g., headcap implantation...

Reinhardt, V. , Dodsworth, R. 1989. Facilitated socialization of previously singly caged adult rhesus macaques (videotape with accompanying text). Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center. Available on loan from Animal Care Audio-Visual Materials, WRPRC, 1220 Capitol Court, Madison, WI 53715, USA, Madison, WI.

Thirty scenes depict different adult rhesus monkeys [and one adult, male stump-tailed macaque], each paired with a compatible companion for up to two years. The following pair combinations and research situations are shown: adult male/male...

Reinhardt, V. 1989. Alternatives to single caging of rhesus monkeys. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 3, 123-125.

Single-housed rhesus macaques were transferred to permanent pair-housing arrangements. The present investigation also demonstrates that pairing caged rhesus monkeys with compatible conspecifics does not interfere with a number of common research protocols [e.g., headcap implantation...

Fajzi, K., Reinhardt, V., Smith, M. D. 1989. A review of environmental enrichment strategies for singly-caged nonhuman primates. Lab Animal 18(2), 23-35.

Comprehensive literature review dealing with the following topics: a) Group housing versus single housing; b) Enrichment strategies using inanimate objects; c) Socialization with conspecifics; d) Role of animal care staff.

Reinhardt, V., Houser, W. D., Eisele, S. et al. 1987. Social enrichment of the environment with infants for singly caged adult rhesus monkeys. Zoo Biology 6, 365-371.

Twenty-nine weaned rhesus monkey infants were removed from breeding troops to avoid overcrowding and were placed with unfamiliar singly caged adults without prior familiarization. Adult-infant pairs were compatible in 90% of cases. Compatibility depended neither...

O'Neill, P. L. 1987. Enriching the lives of primates in captivity. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 1, 1-5.

A summary of basic environmental enrichement for group-housed rhesus macaques. The essence of the social primate is lost under the stresses of the nonsocial condition.

Tardif, S. D., Bales, K., Williams, L. et al. 2006. Preparing New World monkeys for laboratory research. ILAR Journal 47(4), 307-315.

New World monkeys represent an important but often poorly understood research resource. The relatively small size and low zoonotic risk of these animals make them appealing as research subjects in a number of areas. However...