Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Steward, A. L., Sorenson, A., Elliot, K. et al. 2013. Variables affecting indoor pairing success in adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 48. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #60)

In research centers that study primates, pairing unfamiliar subjects is the most costly and difficult problem that staff face. Recent studies in adult rhesus macaques suggest that social competence and sociality, as measured by ease...

Reinhardt, V. (ed.) 2013. Compassion Makes a Difference - Discussions by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum [LAREF], Volume III. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

This is the third volume of discussions that took place on the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum (LAREF). This forum is dedicated to the exchange of personal experiences of refining the conditions under which...

Maguire-Herring, V., Stonemetz, K. M., Lynch, L. J. et al. 2013. The effect of weight on the compatibility of isosexual pairs of captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 77. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #148)

Recently, there has been an increase in the implementation of social housing as an effective behavioral management strategy to improve the psychological well-being of captive nonhuman primates. Social housing nonhuman primates with conspecifics provides many...

Gottlieb, D. H., Capitanio, J. P., McCowan, B. 2013. Risk factors for stereotypic behavior and self-biting in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): Animal's history, current environment, and personality. American Journal of Primatology 75(10), 995-1008.

Captive rhesus macaques sometimes exhibit undesirable abnormal behaviors, such as motor stereotypic behavior (MSB) and self-abuse. Many risk factors for these behaviors have been identified but the list is far from comprehensive, and large individual...

Kuhlman, G. 2013. Social housing program for sexually mature male macaques. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 660 (Abstract #132).

To ensure both regulatory compliance and high animal welfare standards a program was initiated in our facility to allow sexually mature male macaques the opportunity for social housing. Historically, there had been concern over social...

Scott, J. A., Taylor, D. 2013. Effects of environment and enrichment on the behavior and serum corticosterone levels in Xenopus laevis. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 662 (Abstract #P145).

Xenopus laevis is a commonly used research animal for which well accepted enrichment strategies have not been established. Our overall objective was to identify enrichment strategies that are most beneficial to Xenopus as a step...

Bliss-Moreau, E., Moadab, G., Theil, J. 2013. Efficient cooperative chair training. American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 67. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #118)

Traditional procedures for training nonhuman primates to be restrained in chairs typically involve very little use of positive reinforcement. In this talk, we detail a refined chair training procedure which uses a mix of positive...

Benton, C. G., West, M. W., Hall, S. M. et al. 2013. Effect of short-term pair housing of juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) on immunologic parameters. JAALAS 52(3), 240-246.

Social housing of nonhuman primates (NHP) in an infectious disease setting presents unique challenges, and individual housing is often scientifically justified. At our institute, we recognized an opportunity to limit individual housing to the minimal...

Gazes, R. P., Brown, E. K., Basile, B. M. et al. 2013. Automated cognitive testing of monkeys in social groups yields results comparable to individual laboratory-based testing. Animal Cognition 16(3), 445–458.

Cognitive abilities likely evolved in response to specific environmental and social challenges and are therefore expected to be specialized for the life history of each species. Specialized cognitive abilities may be most readily engaged under...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2012. Behavioral assessment of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) pairs through a common laboratory event. American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 42. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #54)

Using behavioral data to predict pair stability would be helpful for improving management of pairs and prevention of injury. Differences in reactions to presumed laboratory stressors, such as location moves, may provide information about pair...

Lutz, C. K., Linsenbardt, K. A., Williams, P. C. et al. 2012. Abnormal behavior in captive baboons (Papio hahadryas sp.) American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 36. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #37)

Abnormal behavior in macaque monkeys has been associated with risk factors such as nursery rearing and single housing. However, less is known about the extent of, and risk factors for, abnormal behavior in baboons. The...

Lee, G. H., Thom, J. P., Chu, K. L. et al. 2012. Comparing the relative benefits of grooming-contact and full-contact pairing for laboratory-housed adult female Macaca fascicularis. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 137(3-4), 157-165.

This study compares the benefits between the two housing types by video recording 14 pairs of adult female Macaca fascicularis in four sequential housing phases following an ABBA design: baseline grooming-contact, full contact shortly after...

Harding, K. 2012. Assessment of a temperament test for use in pairing adult male Macaca fascicularis. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 636 (Abstract #PS34).

Our NHP import quarantine facility has close to a 90% success rate with pairing adult male (> 5 kg) cynomolgus macaques. Given the challenges of pairing adult male NHP, our goal was to determine if...

Fante, F., Baldan, N., De Benedictis, G. M. et al. 2012. Refinement of a macaque transplantation model: Application of a subcutaneous port as a means for long-term enteral drug administration and nutritional supplementation. Laboratory Animals 46(2), 114-121.

A new application of a device enabling the long-term enteral administration of drugs or nutritional supplementation was developed for implementing in research entailing the use of macaques (Macaca fascicularis). After implanting a subcutaneous port, a...

DiVincenti, L., Rehrig, A., Wyatt, J. 2012. Interspecies pair housing of macaques in a research facility. Laboratory Animals 46(2), 1170-1172.

The eighth edition of The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals establishes social housing as the "default" for social species including non-human primates. The advantages of social housing for primates have been...

Camacho, J. N., Boskovic, S., Moeller, E. 2012. Improved nonhuman primate social housing using visual cues associated for an intensive research study. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 636-637 (Abstract #PS35).

Lean management-based visual tools have been used to improve the quality of animal care associated with a complex research study involving immune-compromised cynomolgus monkeys (M. fascicularis) in various postsurgical recovery states. In order to effectively...

Baker, K. C., Crockett, C. M., Lee, G. H. et al. 2012. Pair housing of female longtailed and rhesus macaques in the laboratory: Behavior in protected contact versus full contact. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 15(2), 126-143.

Pair housing for caged macaques in the laboratory generally allows unrestricted tactile contact but, less commonly, may involve limited contact via grooming-contact bars or perforated panels. The purpose of using this protected contact housing, which...

Baker, K. C. 2012. Implementation of pair housing for laboratory primates. American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 31. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #20)

There is a general consensus among those studying the welfare of captive primates that social housing is the most effective means for promoting psychological well-being. It is well established that socially-housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)...

Baker, K. C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Oettinger, B. et al. 2012. Benefits of pair housing are consistent across a diverse population of rhesus macaques. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 137(3-4), 148-156.

Introducing singly housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) into isosexual pairs is widely considered to improve welfare. The population of laboratory rhesus macaques is heterogeneous on a variety of factors and there is little literature available...

Gilbert, M. H., Baker, K. C. 2011. Social buffering in adult male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): Effects of stressful events in single vs pair housing. Journal of Medical Primatology 40(2), 71-78.

The purpose of this study was to test whether long-term pair housing of male rhesus macaques ameliorated negative responses to stressful events that can occur in the course of routine husbandry or research procedures. Twelve...

Schapiro, S. J., Bernacky, B. J. 2011. Socialization strategies and disease transmission in captive colonies of nonhuman primates. American Journal of Primatology 74(6), 518-527.

In captive research environments for nonhuman primates (NHP), social housing strategies are often in conflict with protocols designed to minimize disease transmission. This is particularly true in breeding colonies, and is especially relevant when attempting...

Smith, A. S., Birnie, A. K., French, J. A. 2011. Social isolation affects partner-directed social behavior and cortisol during pair formation in marmosets, Callithrix geoffroyi. Physiology & Behavior 104(5), 955-961.

Pair-bonded relationships form during periods of close spatial proximity and high sociosexual contact. Like other monogamous species, marmosets form new social pairs after emigration or ejection from their natal group resulting in periods of social...

DiVincenti, L., Wyatt, J. D. 2011. Pair housing of macaques in research facilities: A science-based review of benefits and risks. JAALAS 50(6), 856-863.

Despite the enactment in the early 1990s of regulations requiring social housing of nonhuman primates (NHP), single housing is still prevalent in American research facilities. The publication of the 2011 edition of The Guide for...

NC3Rs, University of Stirling. 2011. Common Marmoset Care [Online resource].

The three main divisions of 'marmosetcare.com' aim respectively to promote: an understanding of the range of behaviour in this species, placing this behaviour in the context of its natural habitat and promoting good welfare in...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2011. Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) pair-housing assessment using a quantitative data collection system. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 744-745 (Abstract #PS110).

A behavioral data collection system is described to monitor compatibility of rhesus macaque pairs.