Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Rogge, J. R., Sherenco, K. D., Malling, R. et al. 2011. Establishing a positive reinforcement training program in neotropical primates: A comparison of squirrel and owl monkeys. American Journal of Primatology 73(S1), 84. (34th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #157)

To enhance the psychological well-being of non-human primates, many biomedical facilities use positivereinforcement training (PRT) techniques to encourage voluntary participation in husbandry and clinical procedures.PRT increases the animal?s control over its environment and desensitizes the...

Rambo, M. 2011. Nonhuman primate positive reinforcement training: Flexible resource approach. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 777 (Abstract #P149).

In a review of current literature on positive reinforcement training, the majority of sources suggest that in order to produce results worthy of the time investment, training sessions must be held 2 to 3 times...

Hawkins, P., Burn, C., Hurst, J. et al. 2011. Report of the 2010 RSPCA/UFAW rodent welfare group meeting - The effect of husbandry on welfare and promoting good practice. Animal Technology and Welfare 10(2), 105-114.

The RSPCA/UFAW Rodent Welfare Group holds a one-day meeting every autumn so that its members can discuss current welfare research, exchange views on rodent welfare issues and share experiences of the implementation of the 3Rs...

Fitchett, A., Judge, S., Morris, C. 2011. Using olive oil to orally dose laboratory rats. Animal Technology and Welfare 10(1), 39-41.

Many compounds are orally administered to laboratory rats using the gavage technique. This technique is stressful for the animal and can cause injury or death if performed incorrectly. Often compounds are suspended in food oils...

Watts, A. 2010. Thinking outside the box in box training. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(2), 3.

At the Oregon National Primate Research Center, we train animals to enter transfer boxes using positive reinforcement training (PRT), a type of training in which the trainer reinforces desired behaviors (such asentering the transfer box)...

Moreau, E. 2010. To squeeze or not to squeeze? A Discussion on LAREF, September, 2009. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 49(2), 3-4.

The discussion was started by the following questions: "Is the squeeze-back mechanism more or less stressful than the pole and collar system for removing a macaque from his cage for an IM (intramuscular) injection?" and...

Minier, D. E., Tatum, L., McCowan, B. 2010. Human-directed contra-aggression training using positive reinforcement for indoor-housed rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 53. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #87)

The quality of human-animal interactions can be an indicator of well-being in laboratory primates and increased anxiety-related behavior, such as aggression, may compromise an animal’s ability to provide research outcomes reflective of normal function. The...

McMillan, J. L., Galvan, A., Wichmann, T. et al. 2010. The use of positive reinforcement during pole and collar training of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 705-706 (Abstract #P78).

The pole and collar method enables safe transfer of a monkey from their home environment to a restraint chair without sedation. The ability to conduct procedures with a conscious and cooperative subject is cost effective...

Martin, A. L., Franklin, A. N., Bloomsmith, M. A. 2010. Improving the efficiency of positive reinforcement training by testing food item preference. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 27. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #6)

Positive reinforcement training relies on identifying an effective reinforcing consequence, often food, to be presented contingent on the performance of the desired behavior. Prior to training sessions, we used a multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO)...

Haba Nelsen, S. L., Bradford, D., Houghton, P. 2010. Laser lixit training: An alternative form of target training that can be utilized in the daily husbandry care of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 27. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #5)

Rhesus and cynomolgus macaques are some of the most frequently utilized laboratory nonhuman primates, and it is common for one facility to have a significantly large colony of either or both species. Daily care needs...

Egeler, J. L., Hoekwater, S., Hoffman, H. D. 2010. Operant training differences between male and female group-housed nonhuman primates. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 660 (Abstract #PS17).

Operant training of animals is a widely accepted practice for training or conditioning animals to cooperate with technical procedures or perform certain tasks in a laboratory setting. This type of training has been proven to...

Egeler, J. L., Hoekwater, S., Hoffman, H. D. 2010. Monitoring program for the treatment of nonhuman primates with behavioral disorders. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 717 (Abstract #P113).

Maintaining the psychologic wellbeing of nonhuman primates housed in a laboratory setting is an important aspect in providing the best possible care for these animals. Nonhuman primates kept in captivity can begin to display abnormal...

Egeler, J. L. 2010. Operant training differences between male and female group-housed nonhuman primates. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(6), page numbers missing.

Operant training of animals is a widely accepted practice to train or condition animals to cooperate with technical procedures or perform certain tasks in a laboratory setting. This type of training has been proven to...

Coleman, K., Maier, A. 2010. The use of positive reinforcement training to reduce stereotypic behavior in rhesus macaques. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 124(3-4), 142-148.

Stereotypic behavior is a pervasive problem for captive monkeys and other animals. Once this behavior pattern has started, it can be difficult to alleviate. We tested whether or not using positive reinforcement training (PRT) can...

Turner, P. V., Ovari, J., Pinelli, C. et al. 2010. Long-term effects of housing and enrichment on affective behavior and responsiveness of Sprague-Dawley rats. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 658-659 (Abstract #PS12).

Most rodent studies evaluate different caging paradigms over short periods of time, which may not be realistic for typical colony settings. Inappropriate housing may lead to boredom, aggression, stereotypies, and altered metabolism, which in turn...

Coble, D. C., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2010. Rate of self-injurious behavior in buspirone-treated rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) across different levels of human activity in the environment. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 27-28. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #7)

This study examined the effectiveness of an anxiolytic drug, buspirone, in rhesus macaques with a history of self-injurious behavior. ... However, self-biting was more prevalent during periods of high activity. Treatment with buspirone was not...

Bentson, K. L., Crockett, C. M., Wahl, K. L. et al. 2010. Floating limb behaviors and self-biting are associated in laboratory monkeys. American Journal of Primatology 72(8), 725-733.

Early descriptions of floating limb behaviors in monkeys were associated with isolation rearing, a practice that ended more than two decades ago. The present authors named various forms of behaviors in which a leg is...

Baker, K. C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Neu, K. et al. 2010. Positive reinforcement training as enrichment for singly housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 19(3), 307-313.

Positive reinforcement training is one component of behavioural management employed to improve psychological well-being. There has been regulatory promotion to compensate for restricted social housing in part by providing human interaction to singly caged primates...

Atcha, Z., Rourke, C., Neo, A. H. P. et al. 2010. Alternative method of oral dosing for rats. JAALAS 49(3), 335-343.

Oral administration of drugs to laboratory rodents typically is achieved by using the gavage technique. Although highly effective, this method occasionally can cause esophageal injury as well as restraint-associated distress, particularly with repeated use. The...

Rommeck, I., Anderson, K., Heagerty, A. et al. 2009. Risk factors and remediation of self-injurious and self-abuse behavior in rhesus macaques. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 12(1), 61-72.

Considered signs of decreased welfare--abnormal behaviors such as self-injury and self-abuse among nonhuman primates housed in the laboratory--may put into question the validity and reliability of scientific research using these animals as models. Providing environmental...

Major, C. A., Kelly, B. J., Novak, M. A. et al. 2009. Self-directed biting in male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) with self-injurious behavior (SIB) increases following acute treatment with the anxiogenic drug FG7142. American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 89. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #182)

A small percentage of captive macaques spontaneously exhibit self-injurious behavior (SIB), mostly in the form of self-directed biting. Several risk factors have been identified in the etiology of SIB in monkeys, including exposure to early...

Lee, S., Su, H. 2009. Applications of positive reinforcement training in captive orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopsis). American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 34. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #16)

PRT is a good way of shaping the behavior of captive animals and doing so can make the animals less stressed to promote their well being. PRT is commonly used by captive animal organizations in...

Gottlieb, D. H., Tatum, L., Ghirardo, S. et al. 2009. Assessment of efficacy of three types of foraging enrichment in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 33. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #13)

Rhesus macaques housed indoors in captivity commonly display abnormal behaviors that are rarely seen in their wild counterparts. These behaviors include stereotypic behaviors and self-abuse. These behaviors are often seen as signs of poor welfare...

Fernström, A. L., Fredlund, H., Spångberg, M. et al. 2009. Positive reinforcement training in rhesus macaques - training progress as a result of training frequency. American Journal of Primatology 71(5), 373-379.

Positive reinforcement training (PRT) efficiency was examined as a function of training frequency in 33 pair- or triple-housed female rhesus macaques. The animals were trained three times a week, once a day or twice a...

Crockett, C. M., Baker, K. C., Lutz, C. K. et al. 2009. Developing a reliable laboratory primate alopecia scoring system for interfacility collaboration and on-line training. American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 73. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #133)

Of the potential flags of impaired well-being in laboratory primates, alopecia has received particular regulatory focus, making it a top priority for behavioral managers. Consensus on a reliable alopecia scoring system used by multiple facilities...