Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Schapiro, S. J. 2000. A few new developments in primate housing and husbandry. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 27(2), 103-110.

A major focus of this paper is an examination of the complementary role that behavioral management strategies play in the establishment and enhancement of well-defined nonhuman primate research resources. .... Additionally, I will discuss the...

Guhad, F., Augustsson, H., Hau, J. 1998. The Törneby Primate Facility optimisation of housing conditions for rhesus macaques in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 25(4), 173-176.

Group-housing arrangements for rhesus macaques and husbandry implications are described.

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Schnell, C. R., Gerber, P. 1997. Training and remote monitoring of cardiovascular parameters in non-human primates. Primate Report 49, 61-70.

The use of "pre-invasive" implantable radio telemetry has revolutionized the collection of physiological data under stress-free conditions. It is now possible to measure accurately 'normal' baseline data of haemodynamic and electrical parameters in conscious and...

Schapiro, S. J., Bloomsmith, M. A., Suarez, S. A. et al. 1997. A comparison of the effects of simple versus complex environmental enrichment on the behaviour of group-housed, subadult rhesus macaques. Animal Welfare 6, 17-28.

Enrichment of the environments of captive primates is currently of interest as both a basic and an applied research question, particularly when social and inanimate enhancements are used simultaneously. We measured the hehavioural effects of...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Species-adequate housing and handling conditions for Old World nonhuman primates kept in research institutions. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 85-93. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

Practical recommendations to address five basic characteristics of Old World primates in the laboratory setting: a) social disposition, b) semi-arboreal lifestyle, c) complex living environment, d) intelligence, e) sensitivity to distress.

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Refining the traditional housing and handling of laboratory rhesus macaques improves scientific methodology. Primate Report 49, 93-112.

A monkey housed in an empty cage, however, is literally a behavioral cripple because s/he is chronically deprived of appropriate stimuli for the expression of species-typical behavior patterns. It is difficult to know objectively if...

Crockett, C. M., Bellanca, R. U., Bowers, C. L. et al. 1997. Grooming-contact bars provide social contact for individually caged laboratory primates. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 36(6), 53-60.

We investigated pair housing of adult long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) by using widely spaced, vertical "grooming-contact" (G-C) bars that allow physical contact but prevent pursuit by one animal into the other's cage. Cages with G-C...

Raje, S. S., Stewart, K. L. 1997. Group housing for male New Zealand White rabbits. Lab Animal 26(4), 36-37.

Establishing a group of 5 castrated male rabbits resulted in all but one rabbit suffering some kind of minor injury during a major conflict on day 6. Housing the two older animals together as a...

Burge, T., Panoussis, B., Weber, H. 1997. Primate housing facilities for pharmaceutical research in Switzerland (an example). Primate Report 49, 19-22.

According to the Swiss Animal Welfare Legislation, the minimal enclosure area for macaques of the size of rhesus or cynomolgus monkeys for experimental purposes is 15 cubic meters. In such an enclosure up to 5...

Reinhardt, V. 1996. Refining the blood collection procedure for macaques. Lab Animal 25(1), 32-35.

Training protocol is described. These findings lead to the conclusion that training nonhuman primates to cooperate during venipuncture in their familiar home environment offers a methodological refinement by eliminating significant cortisol responses.

Reinhardt, V., Liss, C., Stevens, C. 1995. Restraint methods of laboratory non-human primates: A critical review. Animal Welfare 4(3), 221-238 .

Published information provides scientific evidence that traditional, involuntary restraint techniques of research non-human primates are intrinsically a source of distress resulting from fear. It has been documented that common methods of enforced restraint result in...

Reinhardt, V., Liss, C., Stevens, C. 1995. Social housing of previously single-caged macaques: What are the options and the risks? Animal Welfare 4(4), 307-328 .

A review of the scientific literature gives evidence that transferring previously single-caged adult macaques to permanent compatible pair-housing arrangements (isosexual pairs, adult/infant pairs) is associated with less risk of injury and morbidity than transferring them...

Schapiro, S. J., Bushong, D. 1994. Effects of enrichment on veterinary treatment of laboratory rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 3(1), 25-36.

For captive primates, environmental enrichment may improve psychological well-being, as indicated by changes in the frequency of species-typical and abnormal behaviours. The effects of enrichment on physical well-being have also been examined, but little attention...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Traditional handling procedures of laboratory nonhuman primates are an intrinsic source of distress: What can be done? In Touch 1(4), 1 & 6-7.

With some professional expertise and goodwill, there should be no real need to resort to forceful restraint when doing research with nonhuman primates.

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Social enrichment for previously single-caged stump-tail macaques. Animal Technology 5, 37-41.

Isosexual pair-housing of ten female and six male previously single-caged adult stump-tailed macaques (Macaca arctoides) was attempted. Partners were introduced to each other following the establishment of rank relationships during a three-day non-contact familiarization period...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Safe pair formation technique for previously single-caged rhesus macaques. In Touch 1(3), 5-6.

A safe pair formation technique is described. All 20 [adult male] pairs were compatible during pair formation and throughout the 2-month follow-up period.

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Pair-housing rather than single-housing for laboratory rhesus macaques. Journal of Medical Primatology 23(8), 426-431.

Two different pair formation options for adult female and male rhesus macaques are described and tested: Pairing adults with adults of the same sex after establishment of dominance-subordination relationships during a noncontact familiarization period, and...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Effective environmental enrichment for caged rhesus macaques. In Touch 1(2), 1 & 3-5.

The animals spent approximately 20% of the [day] time interacting with the companion, 10% perching on the PVC pipe, 4% gnawing/manipulating the branch segment and 7% foraging for primary food.

Meshik, V. A. 1994. Group formation in adult Japanese macaques. International Zoo News 41(3), 5-9.

Starting with submissive animals, individuals from the first group [2 females and 1 male] were introduced step by step to the second [resident] group [3 females and 1 male]. A new group was successfully formed...

Luttrell, L., Acker, L., Urben, M. et al. 1994. Training a large troop of rhesus macaques to co-operate during catching: Analysis of the time investment. Animal Welfare 3(2), 135-140.

This study demonstrates that only a minimal time investment was needed to train a large troop of laboratory non-human primates to co-operate in the catching procedure. A group of 45 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was...

Visalberghi, E., Anderson, J. R. 1993. Reasons and risks associated with manipulating captive primates' social environments. Animal Welfare 2(1), 3-15 .

Review of the implications of experimental or management-related manipulations of the social environment of captive primates for the animals' welfare. Relatively little empirical work has been done on the effects of manipulation of the social...

Swett, W. W. 1993. The resocialization and rehabilitation of humanized and abused primates. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 440-443.

Author presents case histories of Primarily Primate's treatment of individual primates with problems common to humanized and abused primates. Among the methods effectively used were gradual introduction to other primates, (sometimes with the use of...

Reinhardt, V., Hurwitz, S. 1993. Evaluation of social enrichment for aged rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 44, 53-57.

The effect of a compatible companion on the behaviour and bodyweight of eight previously single-caged, 31-36 years old rhesus macaques was assessed 16 months after pair formation. The aged subjects preferred to stay in close...