Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Crast, J., Seelig, D., Meeker, T. L. et al. 2018. Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) groups with more non-natal adult males per adult female have lower rates of aggression-induced trauma and greater reproductive success. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 45 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #140).

Limiting contact aggression and social stress is a principal animal welfare challenge in managing large groups of captive nonhuman primates. This challenge is especially pronounced in rhesus monkeys (macaca mulatta), a species characterized by a...

Heagerty, A. L., Coleman, K. 2018. Amount and reciprocity of affiliative behaviors can predict pairing success in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 47 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #148).

Socialization is one of the most important forms of enrichment for rhesus macaques. However, pair introductions can result in aggression and injury if partners are incompatible, even days after the initial introduction. Identifying predictors of...

Hanniba, D., Beisner, B., Nathman, A. et al. 2018. Removals based on low within-matriline relatedness can reduce severe aggression in captive rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 48 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #151).

Previous observational research of captive rhesus macaques suggests that higher coefficients of relatedness within matrilines are associated with lower rates of severe within‐matriline aggression and more cohesive grooming communities. We tested whether experimental removals targeted...

Balasubramaniam, K. N., Beisner, B. A., Vandeleest, J. J. et al. 2018. Social buffering and contact transmission: Network connections have beneficial and detrimental effects on Shigella infection risk among captive rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 51-52 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #162).

Group living in primates may impact the risk of pathogen acquisition in two ways. First, social connectedness makes individuals more susceptible to pathogens via contact‐mediated transmission. Yet in strongly bonded societies, having close connections and...

Langley, E. J. G., van Horik, J. O., Whiteside, M. A. et al. 2018. Individuals in larger groups are more successful on spatial discrimination tasks. Animal Behaviour 142, 87-93.

To understand how natural selection may act on cognitive processes, it is necessary to reliably determine interindividual variation in cognitive abilities. However, an individual's performance in a cognitive test may be influenced by the social...

Rox, A., de Vries, H., Louwerse, A. L. et al. 2018. Female social behaviour during three male introductions in captive groups of rhesus macaques. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 207, 89-97.

Introductions of new males into captive primate groups are often necessary to prevent inbreeding, but also bear high social risks. To minimize these risks, it is crucial to understand the social behaviour accompanying male introductions...

Thurston, S., Burlingame, L., Lester, P. A. et al. 2018. Methods of pairing and pair maintenance of New Zealand white rabbits (Oryctolagus Cuniculus) via behavioral ethogram, monitoring, and interventions. JoVE (Journal of Visualized Experiments) 133, e57267.

Though European rabbits are a social species, socially housing them can be challenging. Therefore, there must be a thorough understanding of behaviors and social structures of pair-housed laboratory rabbits. Here we present a protocol to...

McCowan, B., Beisner, B., Hannibal, D. 2018. Social management of laboratory rhesus macaques housed in large groups using a network approach: A review. Behavioural Processes 156, 77-82.

Biomedical facilities across the nation and worldwide aim to develop cost-effective methods for the reproductive management of macaque breeding groups, typically by housing macaques in large, multi-male multi-female social groups that provide monkey subjects for...

Ekanayake-Alper,D. K., Wilson, S. R., Scholz, J. A. 2018. Retrospective review of surgical outcomes and pair-housing success in vasectomized rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Comparative Medicine 68(2), 168–176.

Providing social housing for adult male macaques can be challenging. One successful strategy for long-term social housing of adult male macaques is to pair them with adult females; however, unwanted breeding must be prevented by...

De, K., Saxena, V. K., Balaganur, K. et al. 2018. Effect of short-term seclusion of sheep on their welfare indicators. Journal of Veterinary Behavior 27, 1-7.

Separation from the group is a potent stressor for sheep and may have an adverse effect on animal welfare. Therefore, the present study was initiated to determine the effect of short-term seclusion of sheep on...

DiVincenti, L. Jr., Rehrig, A. 2017. Social behavior of adult male New Zealand White rabbits housed in groups or pairs in the laboratory. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 20(1), 86-94.

Rabbits are usually singly housed in laboratories, but a new emphasis on providing social housing for social species has prompted exploration of alternative housing for this species. However, a paucity of literature on the social...

Bardi, M., Prugh, A. M., Eubanks, B. T. et al. 2017. Physiologic correlates of interactions between adult male and immature long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). JAALAS 56(6), 718-728.

Interactions between adult males and immature members of the same species are rare in most mammals; in contrast, an estimated 40% of primate species are characterized by an involvement of males in the social life...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2017. Two methods of social separation for paired adolescent male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). JAALAS 56(6), 729-734.

Literature-based recommendations regarding how to separate pairs of laboratory-housed NHP when required for research, veterinary, or management needs are unavailable. This study assessed 2 separation techniques—rapid and stepwise—to determine whether a period of limited social...

Theil, J. H., Beisner, B. A., Hill, A. E. et al. 2017. Effects of human management events on conspecific aggression in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). JAALAS 56(2), 122-130.

Conspecific aggression in outdoor-housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) at primate research facilities is a leading source of trauma and can potentially influence animal wellbeing and research quality. Although aggression between macaques is a normal part...

Pomerantz, O., Baker, K. C. 2017. Higher levels of submissive behaviors at the onset of the pairing process of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) are associated with lower risk of wounding following introduction. American Journal of Primatology 79(8), e22671.

Social housing of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) is considered to be the cornerstone of behavioral management programs in biomedical facilities. However, it also involves the risk of socially inflicted trauma. The ability to avoid such...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2017. Pair housing of macaques: A review of partner selection, introduction techniques, monitoring for compatibility, and methods for long-term maintenance of pairs. American Journal of Primatology 79(1), e22485.

Pair housing of macaques has become a widely implemented compromise between meeting the social needs of the monkeys and allowing for their use in biomedical research. While beneficial to the animals, pair housing can provide...

Hannibal, D. L., Bliss-Moreau, E., Vandeleest, J. et al. 2017. Laboratory rhesus macaque social housing and social changes: Implications for research. American Journal of Primatology 79(1), e22528.

Macaque species, specifically rhesus (Macaca mulatta), are the most common nonhuman primates (NHPs) used in biomedical research due to their suitability as a model of high priority diseases (e.g., HIV, obesity, cognitive aging), cost effective...

Capitanio, J. P., Blozis, S. A., Snarr, J. et al. 2017. Do “birds of a feather flock together” or do “opposites attract”? Behavioral responses and temperament predict success in pairings of rhesus monkeys in a laboratory setting. American Journal of Primatology 79(1), e22464.

The growing recognition that social needs of primates in captivity must be addressed can present challenges to staff at primate facilities charged with implementing pair‐housing solutions for animals. Unfortunately, there are few published papers that...

Worlein, J. M.,Kroeker, R., Lee, G. H. et al. 2017. Socialization in pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina). American Journal of Primatology 79(1), e22556.

In response to new emphasis by regulatory agencies regarding socialization, behavioral management programs are allocating greater resources to maximize socialization opportunities for laboratory primates. Information regarding predictors of compatibility and risk of injury for all...

Marshall, K., Wolford, H., Martin, L. 2017. Creatively meeting the standards – taking rabbit housing to the next level. Animal Technology and Welfare 16(3), 226-228.

The 8th Edition of the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals clarified its language regarding housing social species, specifying that, “Single housing of social species should be the exception…”. This is a...

Ludwig, S. C., Kapetanopoulos, K., Kotrschal, K. et al. 2017. Effects of mate separation in female and social isolation in male free-living Greylag geese on behavioural and physiological measures. Behavioural Processes 138, 134-141.

The presence of a social partner may significantly contribute to coping with stressful events, whereas dyadic separation generally increases glucocorticoid levels and, thereby, might also affect immune function and health. To study the covariation between...

Silva de Souza Matos, L., Palme, R., Silva Vasconcellos, A. 2017. Behavioural and hormonal effects of member replacement in captive groups of blue-fronted amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva). Behavioural Processes 138, 160-169.

Social species in captivity may face allostatic overload due to artificial grouping and other social constraints. In rescue centres, groups of psittacines are constantly mixed due to the arrival and/or release of individuals; this procedure...

Lalot, M., Ung, D., Péron, F. et al. 2017. You know what? I’m happy. Cognitive bias is not related to personality but is induced by pair-housing in canaries (Serinus canaria). Behavioural Processes 134, 70-77.

Recent studies suggest that cognitive bias could constitute a novel and valid measure of animal welfare. Although interest for a link between personality and cognition is growing, no study to date investigated whether a cognitive...

Zomeño, C., Birolo, M., Zuffellato, A. et al. 2017. Aggressiveness in group-housed rabbit does: Influence of group size and pen characteristics. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 194, 79-85.

The aim of this work was to study how the group size and the number of doorways in a pen may influence the aggressive interactions throughout the reproductive cycle among does kept in a part-time...

Axelsson, H. M. K., Hansen, S. W., Loberg, J. et al. 2017. Effects of group size on behaviour, growth and occurrence of bite marks in farmed mink. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 194, 112-119.

The aims of this study were to investigate the occurrence of stereotypic behaviours and the activity level in farmed mink when group housed in climbing cages and if group housing increase aggression by assessing the...