Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Egeler, J. L. 2010. Operant training differences between male and female group-housed nonhuman primates. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(6), page numbers missing.

Operant training of animals is a widely accepted practice to train or condition animals to cooperate with technical procedures or perform certain tasks in a laboratory setting. This type of training has been proven to...

Coleman, K., Maier, A. 2010. The use of positive reinforcement training to reduce stereotypic behavior in rhesus macaques. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 124(3-4), 142-148.

Stereotypic behavior is a pervasive problem for captive monkeys and other animals. Once this behavior pattern has started, it can be difficult to alleviate. We tested whether or not using positive reinforcement training (PRT) can...

Williams-Fritze, M. J., Altieri, J. A., Clough, C. et al. 2010. Modification of a dog cage for use as an exercise unit for rabbits. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 703 (Abstract #P70).

The Guide for the Care and Use of Animals and the USDA Animal Welfare Regulations (AWR) outline minimum space requirements for laboratory animals, including rabbits. These documents encourage housing of animals in enclosures that allow...

Mayfield, K. L., Livingston, L. G., Kirby, D. W. 2010. Floor housing rabbits to promote weight loss and species-specific behaviors. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 706-707 (Abstract #P81).

Standard rabbit caging offers little in the way of exercise, vertical space for species-typical movements (that is, standing on hind limbs), or ample space for proper social introductions. One commonly used rabbit breed, the New...

Leming, J. T., Jensen, E., Plate, G. 2010. From dog kennels to rabbit housing: Complete cage makeover encompasses behavioral enrichment for laboratory rabbits. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 659 (Abstract #PS14).

A major objective of our behavioral management committee was to improve rabbit housing in our large academic research institution. As our dog population decreased, we were left with several rooms of empty stainless steel kennel...

Howard, B., Nevalainen, T., Perretta, G. (ed). 2010. The COST Manual of Laboratory Animal Care and Use: Refinement, Reduction, and Research (1st Ed). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

COST Action B-24 established four working groups to research and discuss issues relevant to laboratory animal science. These included the housing of animals, environmental needs, refinement of procedures, genetically modified animals, and cost-benefit analysis. Based...

Camacho, J. N., Britz, W., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2010. Interactive enrichment housing for nonhuman primates. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 666 (Abstract #PS46).

Environmental enrichment is commonly provided to diversify an animal’s surroundings while maintained in captivity. Traditional enrichment approaches may not provide sufficient environmental complexity and cognitive stimulation. Consequently, housing was designed for laboratory nonhuman primates to...

Baker, K. C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Neu, K. et al. 2010. Positive reinforcement training as enrichment for singly housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 19(3), 307-313.

Positive reinforcement training is one component of behavioural management employed to improve psychological well-being. There has been regulatory promotion to compensate for restricted social housing in part by providing human interaction to singly caged primates...

Lee, S., Su, H. 2009. Applications of positive reinforcement training in captive orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopsis). American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 34. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #16)

PRT is a good way of shaping the behavior of captive animals and doing so can make the animals less stressed to promote their well being. PRT is commonly used by captive animal organizations in...

Fernström, A. L., Fredlund, H., Spångberg, M. et al. 2009. Positive reinforcement training in rhesus macaques - training progress as a result of training frequency. American Journal of Primatology 71(5), 373-379.

Positive reinforcement training (PRT) efficiency was examined as a function of training frequency in 33 pair- or triple-housed female rhesus macaques. The animals were trained three times a week, once a day or twice a...

Clay, A. W., Bloomsmith, M. A., Jackson Marr, M. et al. 2009. Habituation and desensitization as methods for reducing fearful behavior in singly housed rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 71(1), 30-39.

Operant conditioning using positive reinforcement techniques has been used extensively in the management of nonhuman primates in both zoological and laboratory settings. This research project was intended to test the usefulness of counter-conditioning techniques in...

Brunelli, R. L., Gottlieb, D., Holcomb, K. et al. 2009. Effects of positive reinforcement training on infant behavioral development in nursery-reared rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 71(S1), 74. (32nd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #136)

At the California National Primate Research Center, one key to long-term success of macaque breeding colonies is to develop effective infant-rearing strategies that minimize the emergence of behavioral pathologies, which can be one indicator of...

Iredale, S. K., Nevill, C. H., Lutz, C. K. 2008. The influence of observer presence on the behavior of singly housed baboons (Papio sp.) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 70(S1), 29. (31st Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #28)

Live, direct observations are often used to collect behavioral data. However, the presence of an observer may affect the behavior of unhabituated subjects. This study was conducted to determine the effect of an observer’s presence...

Hawkins, P., Hubrecht, R., Buckwell, A. et al. 2008. Refining Rabbit Care: A Resource for Those Working With Rabbits in Research. UFAW/RSPCA: Southwater, UK, 27 pp.

The report sets out how to provide: optimal enclosure characteristicsand size; social housing; solid flooring and substrate; raised areas; refuges; gnawing objects and dietary enrichment; positive interaction with humans; toys and objects to manipulate; for...

Schapiro, S. J., Laule, G., Seelig, D. 2007. "Applied behavior" panel discussion. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 10(1), 79-81.

Adriane and Kris just trained eight rhesus monkeys to present their arms in the blood sleeve for blood samples, and it took, on average ... 8 months ... 160 minutes spread out into 40 sessions.

McMillan, J. L., Perlman, J. E., Bloomsmith, M. A. 2007. Components of an animal training program at a large institution. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 117. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #177)

The application of positive reinforcement training (PRT) has increased in zoological, laboratory, and research settings in recent years, however there is little literature pertaining to the development and implementation of such programs. Over the past...

Maloney, M. A., Baker, K. C., Griffis, C. et al. 2007. Behavioral responses by singly-housed adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) during human interaction and positive reinforcement training. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 53. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #49)

Males complied with significantly more commands, and overall learned significantly more basic husbandry commands than females. Trainers should expect agonistic responses to increase throughout the training process.

LAREF [Laboratory Animal Refinement and Enrichment Forum] 2007. Chapter 7.4. Pole-and-collar training of macaques. In: Making Lives Easier for Animals in Research Labs: Discussions by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Baumans, V., Coke, C., Green, J., Moreau, E., Morton, D., Patterson-Kane, E., Reinhardt, A., Reinhardt, V., Van Loo, P. (eds), 127-130. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

While strictly using positive reinforcement and applying patient gentle-firmness, most macaques can be trained to cooperate during the pole-attachment-chairing procedure. Some cannot be trained, because they have problems overcoming their often-legitimate mistrust of humans.

Griffis, C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Baker, K. C. et al. 2007. Abnormal behavior as a factor of compliance with positive reinforcement training for singly-housed adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 93. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #128)

Positive reinforcement training is an important element of behavioral management programs for nonhuman primates. However, more empirical information is needed to determine whether animals identified for intervention will engage in such training, affecting the amount...

Lidfors, L., Edström, T., Lindberg, L. 2007. The welfare of laboratory rabbits. In: The Welfare of Laboratory Animals, volume 2. Kaliste, E. (Ed), 211-243. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Very useful review of species-adequate housing recommendations for rabbits.

Conour, L. A., Murray, K. A., Brown, M. J. 2006. Preparation of animals for research -- Issues to consider for rodents and rabbits. ILAR Journal 47(4), 283-293.

This article provides details to consider when preparing to use animals in biomedical research. The stress of transport and receipt of animals into a new environment mandate the need for a period of stabilization and...

Capitanio, J. P., Kyes, R. C., Fairbanks, L. A. 2006. Considerations in the selection and conditioning of Old World monkeys for laboratory research: Animals from domestic sources. ILAR Journal 47(4), 294-306.

Preparation of domestically bred animals for research usually involves some combination of social separation, relocation, resocialization, alterations in physical space, photoperiod, and diet, as well as exposure to novel environments. The research literature that has...

Skoumbourdis, E. K., Potratz, K. 2005. Diazepam is more effective than midazolam when used as an aid in chair training non-human primates. American Journal of Primatology 66(S1), 164. (28th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #176)

Non-human primates (NHPs) are utilized frequently in biomedical research and can be difficult and sometimes dangerous to handle. Because of this, restraint is sometimes necessary for data collection. Restraint chair training is generally a straightforward...

Kulpa-Eddy, J. A., Taylor, S., Adams, K. M. 2005. USDA perspectives on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR Journal 46(2), 83-94.

This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of...

Down, N., Skoumbourdis, E., Walsh, M. et al. 2005. Pole-and-collar training: A discussion by the Laboratory Animal Refinement and Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 4, 157-161.

Experiences with the pole-and-collar training training are shared. Yes, most monkeys can be trained but some cannot, or let's say they should not be trained because their personality -- which is presumably conditioned through negative...