Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Andrews, K., Morelli, N., Ruesterholz, E. et al. 2012. The use of bedding for groups of rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 69. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #138)

The use of substrate can have benefits to group housed macaques, including decreased aggression and increased foraging. Still, in some facilities, the use of bedding is perceived as time intensive and costly. In this study...

Weissman-Socci, S., Ray, K. D. 2011. Training rhesus macaques for conscious blood sampling in six steps. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 16(6), 3.

Step 1 Gently squeeze the animal about halfway towards you. Hold the animal in place for about 1 to 2 seconds.We use this time to talk to the animal calmly in a gentle voice. When...

NC3Rs, University of Stirling. 2011. Common Marmoset Care [Online resource].

The three main divisions of 'marmosetcare.com' aim respectively to promote: an understanding of the range of behaviour in this species, placing this behaviour in the context of its natural habitat and promoting good welfare in...

Rubino, S., Smith, R., Nagy, Z. et al. 2011. Acclimation of cynomolgus monkeys to pole and collar chair restraint: Creating efficiency and improving quality. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 784 (Abstract #P181).

Cynomolgus monkeys are acclimated in-house during their 4- to 5-wk quarantine period to pole and collar chair restraint to facilitate safe handling and adequate immobility for study procedures like oral gavage and blood collection. Acclimation...

Rambo, M. 2011. Nonhuman primate positive reinforcement training: Flexible resource approach. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 777 (Abstract #P149).

In a review of current literature on positive reinforcement training, the majority of sources suggest that in order to produce results worthy of the time investment, training sessions must be held 2 to 3 times...

Owen, Y., Amory, J. R. 2011. A case study employing operant conditioning to reduce stress of capture for red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus). Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 14(2), 124-137.

Traditional techniques used to capture New World monkeys, such as net capture, can induce high levels of acute stress detrimental to welfare. Alternatively, training nonhuman animals via operant conditioning to voluntarily participate in husbandry and/or...

Swennes, A. G., Alworth, L. C., Harvey, S. B. et al. 2011. Human handling promotes compliant behavior in adult laboratory rabbits. JAALAS 50(2), 41-45.

Routine laboratory procedures can be stressful for laboratory animals. We wanted to determine whether human handling of adult rabbits could induce a degree of habituation, reducing stress and facilitating research-related manipulation. To this end, adult...

Coleman, K. 2011. Caring for nonhuman primates in biomedical research facilities: Scientific, moral and emotional considerations. American Journal of Primatology 73(3), 220-225.

Animal care for nonhuman primates (NHPs) in biomedical facilities has undergone major changes in the past few decades. Today, most primate facilities have dedicated and highly trained animal care technicians who go to great efforts...

Beisner, B. A., Isbell, L. A. 2011. Factors affecting aggression among females in captive groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 73(11), 1152-1159.

Captive groups of primates often exhibit higher rates of aggression than wild, free-ranging groups. It is important to determine which factors influence aggression in captivity because aggression, particularly intense aggression, can be harmful to animal...

Research Department, RSPCA. 2011. Rabbits: Good Practice for Housing and Care (3rd edition).

This report describes what rabbits need in terms of social housing, enclosure size and type, and environmental enrichment. It also describes potential husbandry-related welfare problems and how to resolve them.

West, A. M., Leland, S. P., Muhammad, F. et al. 2010. Temperament ratings of laboratory rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): Effects of cage level and room composition. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 42. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #52)

Measures of temperament in nonhuman primates generally reflect interactions between inherent individual characteristics and environmental contexts, and they may be indicators of physical and psychological well-being. Heritable aspects of temperament have been identified, but it...

Maier, A., Coleman, K. 2010. Rearing condition can affect success in social groups of rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 36. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #35)

Forming successful groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) can be challenging. Males in particular do not always get along, and some need to be permanently removed due to fighting and trauma. Early rearing condition may...

Watts, A. 2010. Thinking outside the box in box training. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(2), 3.

At the Oregon National Primate Research Center, we train animals to enter transfer boxes using positive reinforcement training (PRT), a type of training in which the trainer reinforces desired behaviors (such asentering the transfer box)...

Watson, L. M. 2010. Effectiveness of perforated plexiglass dividers as social grooming devices between neighboring, individually housed adult male Macaca fascicularis. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 49(4), 1-4.

A clear, perforated, plexiglass divider was installed between neighboring cynos to test whether it altered their proximity to one another, or prompted any behavioral changes. ... Adult male cynomolgus monkeys tend not to spend a...

Waitt, C. D., Bushmitz, M., Honess, P. E. 2010. Designing environments for aged primates. Laboratory Primate Newsletter, 49(3), 5-9.

In order to prevent physical and psychological deterioration in older animals, it is important to apply the same principles of environmental enrichment and housing as are applied to younger animals. As we have discussed above...

Reamer, L., Tooze, Z., Coulson, C. et al. 2010. Correlates of self-directed and stereotypic behaviours in captive red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus torquatus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 124(1-2), 68-74.

The quantification of behaviours linked to anxiety or stress provides a powerful means to address applied questions related to the well-being of captive animals. This study explored correlates of two such behaviours: self-directed (SDB) and...

Moreau, E. 2010. To squeeze or not to squeeze? A Discussion on LAREF, September, 2009. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 49(2), 3-4.

The discussion was started by the following questions: "Is the squeeze-back mechanism more or less stressful than the pole and collar system for removing a macaque from his cage for an IM (intramuscular) injection?" and...

Minier, D. E., Tatum, L., McCowan, B. 2010. Human-directed contra-aggression training using positive reinforcement for indoor-housed rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 53. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #87)

The quality of human-animal interactions can be an indicator of well-being in laboratory primates and increased anxiety-related behavior, such as aggression, may compromise an animal’s ability to provide research outcomes reflective of normal function. The...

McMillan, J. L., Galvan, A., Wichmann, T. et al. 2010. The use of positive reinforcement during pole and collar training of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 705-706 (Abstract #P78).

The pole and collar method enables safe transfer of a monkey from their home environment to a restraint chair without sedation. The ability to conduct procedures with a conscious and cooperative subject is cost effective...

Martin, A. L., Franklin, A. N., Bloomsmith, M. A. 2010. Improving the efficiency of positive reinforcement training by testing food item preference. American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 27. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #6)

Positive reinforcement training relies on identifying an effective reinforcing consequence, often food, to be presented contingent on the performance of the desired behavior. Prior to training sessions, we used a multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO)...

Koban, T. L., Leto, S., Kusznir, T. et al. 2010. A European Union-compliant housing environment for nonhuman primates in a toxicology laboratory. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 718-719 (Abstract #P118).

As a global company, our institution made the decision to install European Union (EU) Appendix A-compliant nonhuman primate cages at one of its facilities. This investment represented a substantial evolution of standards commonly employed within...

Hopper, K., Morales, P. R., Wagner, J. L. 2010. Effects of caging on bone metabolism in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 735 (Abstract #P173).

Juvenile cynomolgus monkeys are frequently used in drug pharmacokinetic and toxicology testing where they are cage housed for extendeded periods of time. In this study measures of body mass, bone metabolism, and turn over were...

Haba Nelsen, S. L., Bradford, D., Houghton, P. 2010. Laser lixit training: An alternative form of target training that can be utilized in the daily husbandry care of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Primatology 72(S1), 27. (33rd Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #5)

Rhesus and cynomolgus macaques are some of the most frequently utilized laboratory nonhuman primates, and it is common for one facility to have a significantly large colony of either or both species. Daily care needs...

Egeler, J. L., Hoekwater, S., Hoffman, H. D. 2010. Operant training differences between male and female group-housed nonhuman primates. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 660 (Abstract #PS17).

Operant training of animals is a widely accepted practice for training or conditioning animals to cooperate with technical procedures or perform certain tasks in a laboratory setting. This type of training has been proven to...

Egeler, J. L., Hoekwater, S., Hoffman, H. D. 2010. A novel approach for utilizing large group-housing style cages for nonhuman primates in toxicology studies. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 716 (Abstract #P110).

The ability to provide permanent group-housed caging for nonhuman primates involved in toxicology research is quickly becoming an important step in improving the overall quality of life for these animals. This type of caging offers...