Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Lutz, C. K., Williams, P. C., Sharp, R. M. 2014. Abnormal behavior and associated risk factors in captive baboons (Papio hamadryas spp.). American Journal of Primatology 76(4), 355-361.

Abnormal behavior, ranging from motor stereotypies to self‐injurious behavior, has been documented in captive nonhuman primates, with risk factors including nursery rearing, single housing, and veterinary procedures. Much of this research has focused on macaque...

Crast, J., Bloomsmith, M. A., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2014. Abnormal behaviour in captive sooty mangabeys. Animal Welfare 23(2), 167-177.

The influence of several factors on abnormal behaviour was investigated in 46 singly housed sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) (eight nursery-reared, 38 mother-reared), including self-injurious, self-directed, stereotypic locomotion, and faeces/urine-related behaviours (SIB, SDB, SL, FUR, respectively)...

Baker, K. C., Coleman, K., Bloomsmith, M. A. et al. 2014. Pairing rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): methodology and outcomes at four national primate research centers. American Journal of Primatology 76(S1), 104. (37th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #207)

Pairing laboratory macaques is a high priority goal for many behavioral management programs. There are numerous methodological differences in introduction procedures across facilities, including the intermediate stages used between single housing and full contact. A...

Baker, K. C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Oettinger, B. et al. 2014. Comparing options for pair housing rhesus macaques using behavioral welfare measures. American Journal of Primatology 76(1), 30-42.

In a biomedical research environment, research or management procedures may render continuous full contact pairing of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) unfeasible. This study aimed to determine whether separation on a frequent basis or housing in...

Abney, D. M., Toscano, J. E., Poor, L. L. et al. 2014. Successful social housing of adult male cynomolgus macaques with similar bodyweights. American Journal of Primatology 76(S1), 86. (37th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #151)

At Charles River Laboratories, we are committed to ensuring all animals have the highest level of care and welfare. To this end, our social housing program includes placing all nonhuman primates in pairs or groups...

Abney, D. M., Harding, K., Toscano, J. et al. 2014. Successful social housing of mature male cynomolgus macaques in mixed sex rooms. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 567. (Abstract #P70).

We are committed to ensuring all our animals have the highest level of care and welfare. To this end, our social housing program includes placing all animals in pairs or groups. We have a rate...

van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Mulenga, I. C., Chidester, D. L. 2014. Early social deprivation negatively affects social skill acquisition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Animal Cognition 17(2), 407–414.

In a highly social species like chimpanzees, the process by which individuals become attuned to their social environment may be of vital importance to their chances of survival. Typically, this socialization process, defined by all...

Bergman, T. J., Sheehan, M. J. 2013. Social knowledge and signal in primates. American Journal of Primatology 75(7), 683-694.

Primates are notable for having a rich and detailed understanding of their social environment and there has been great interest in the evolution and function of social knowledge in primates. Indeed, primates have been shown...

West, A. M., Carey, M., Wagner, W. et al. 2013. Full-contact social housing of non-human primates (Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis) in a biomedical research facility: Initiation and implementation. American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 98. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #216)

Animal welfare regulations have required social housing of primates for more than two decades, although many veterinary and scientific exemptions have been approved with oversight by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). In recent...

Steward, A. L., Sorenson, A., Elliot, K. et al. 2013. Variables affecting indoor pairing success in adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 48. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #60)

In research centers that study primates, pairing unfamiliar subjects is the most costly and difficult problem that staff face. Recent studies in adult rhesus macaques suggest that social competence and sociality, as measured by ease...

Reinhardt, V. (ed.) 2013. Compassion Makes a Difference - Discussions by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum [LAREF], Volume III. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

This is the third volume of discussions that took place on the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum (LAREF). This forum is dedicated to the exchange of personal experiences of refining the conditions under which...

Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., Bernacky, B. J. et al. 2013. Establishing 'quality of life' parameters using behavioural guidelines for humane euthanasia of captive non-human primates. Animal Welfare 22(4) 429-435.

Chronic pain and distress are universally accepted conditions that may adversely affect an animal’s quality of life (QOL) and lead to the humane euthanasia of an animal. At most research institutions and zoological parks in...

Maguire-Herring, V., Stonemetz, K. M., Lynch, L. J. et al. 2013. The effect of weight on the compatibility of isosexual pairs of captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 77. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #148)

Recently, there has been an increase in the implementation of social housing as an effective behavioral management strategy to improve the psychological well-being of captive nonhuman primates. Social housing nonhuman primates with conspecifics provides many...

Gottlieb, D. H., Capitanio, J. P., McCowan, B. 2013. Risk factors for stereotypic behavior and self-biting in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): Animal's history, current environment, and personality. American Journal of Primatology 75(10), 995-1008.

Captive rhesus macaques sometimes exhibit undesirable abnormal behaviors, such as motor stereotypic behavior (MSB) and self-abuse. Many risk factors for these behaviors have been identified but the list is far from comprehensive, and large individual...

Kuhlman, G. 2013. Social housing program for sexually mature male macaques. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 660 (Abstract #132).

To ensure both regulatory compliance and high animal welfare standards a program was initiated in our facility to allow sexually mature male macaques the opportunity for social housing. Historically, there had been concern over social...

Benton, C. G., West, M. W., Hall, S. M. et al. 2013. Effect of short-term pair housing of juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) on immunologic parameters. JAALAS 52(3), 240-246.

Social housing of nonhuman primates (NHP) in an infectious disease setting presents unique challenges, and individual housing is often scientifically justified. At our institute, we recognized an opportunity to limit individual housing to the minimal...

Gazes, R. P., Brown, E. K., Basile, B. M. et al. 2013. Automated cognitive testing of monkeys in social groups yields results comparable to individual laboratory-based testing. Animal Cognition 16(3), 445–458.

Cognitive abilities likely evolved in response to specific environmental and social challenges and are therefore expected to be specialized for the life history of each species. Specialized cognitive abilities may be most readily engaged under...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2012. Behavioral assessment of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) pairs through a common laboratory event. American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 42. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #54)

Using behavioral data to predict pair stability would be helpful for improving management of pairs and prevention of injury. Differences in reactions to presumed laboratory stressors, such as location moves, may provide information about pair...

Sherenco, K. D., Weed, J. L., Tustin, G. W. et al. 2012. Pair formations and management within a captive breeding Aotus colony over a ten year time period. American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 44. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #60)

Providing social housing that mimics the species' natural group composition should be an aim for all captive environments. Aotus are nocturnal, monogamist primates whose offspring (both male and female) disperse at sexual maturity, living solitarily...

Lutz, C. K., Linsenbardt, K. A., Williams, P. C. et al. 2012. Abnormal behavior in captive baboons (Papio hahadryas sp.) American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 36. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #37)

Abnormal behavior in macaque monkeys has been associated with risk factors such as nursery rearing and single housing. However, less is known about the extent of, and risk factors for, abnormal behavior in baboons. The...

Lee, G. H., Thom, J. P., Chu, K. L. et al. 2012. Comparing the relative benefits of grooming-contact and full-contact pairing for laboratory-housed adult female Macaca fascicularis. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 137(3-4), 157-165.

This study compares the benefits between the two housing types by video recording 14 pairs of adult female Macaca fascicularis in four sequential housing phases following an ABBA design: baseline grooming-contact, full contact shortly after...

Harding, K. 2012. Assessment of a temperament test for use in pairing adult male Macaca fascicularis. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 636 (Abstract #PS34).

Our NHP import quarantine facility has close to a 90% success rate with pairing adult male (> 5 kg) cynomolgus macaques. Given the challenges of pairing adult male NHP, our goal was to determine if...

Rault, J.-L. 2012. Friends with benefits: Social support and its relevance for farm animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 136(1), 1-14.

Despite growing interest in promoting positive welfare, rather than just alleviating poor welfare, potential measures of good welfare, and means to provide it, have remained elusive. In humans social support improves stress-coping abilities, health, and...

DiVincenti, L., Rehrig, A., Wyatt, J. 2012. Interspecies pair housing of macaques in a research facility. Laboratory Animals 46(2), 1170-1172.

The eighth edition of The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals establishes social housing as the "default" for social species including non-human primates. The advantages of social housing for primates have been...

Camacho, J. N., Boskovic, S., Moeller, E. 2012. Improved nonhuman primate social housing using visual cues associated for an intensive research study. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 636-637 (Abstract #PS35).

Lean management-based visual tools have been used to improve the quality of animal care associated with a complex research study involving immune-compromised cynomolgus monkeys (M. fascicularis) in various postsurgical recovery states. In order to effectively...