Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Bayne, K. A., Beaver, B. V., Mench, J. A. et al. 2015. Laboratory animal behavior. In: Laboratory Animal Medicine, 3rd edition. Fox, J. G., Anderson, L., Otto, G., et al. (eds). Elsevier, Inc., Amsterdam, NL. pp. 1617-1651.

The study of laboratory animal behavior has increased steadily over the last decade, with expanding emphasis on a variety of commonly used species. In the United States, this trend was initially focused on species for...

Kaiser, R. A., Tichenor, S. D., Regalia, D. E. et al. 2015. Telemetric assessment of social and single housing: Evaluation of electrocardiographic intervals in jacketed cynomolgus monkeys. Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods 75, 38-43.

Introduction: Proactive efforts to socially house laboratory animals are a contemporary, important focus for enhancing animal welfare. Jacketing cynomolgus monkeys has been traditionally considered an exclusionary criterion for social housing based on unsubstantiated concerns that...

Xie, L., Zho, Q., Liu, S. et al. 2014. Effect of living conditions on biochemical and hemtalogical parameters of the cynomolgus monkey. American Journal of Primatology 76(11), 1011-1024.

The cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis) has been increasingly used in biomedical research. Although living conditions affect behavioral and physiological characteristics in macaques, little data is available on how living conditions influence blood-based parameters in the...

McGrew, K. 2014. The importance of data collection to social housing. Enrichment Record 19, 20-21.

Data collection can help facilitate the progress of social housing programs within individual institutions and in the industry as a whole. One benefit is that it provides the ability to address preconceived ideas (“myths”) with...

Cikanek, S. J., Nockold, S., Brown, J. L. et al. 2014. Evaluating group housing strategies for the ex-situ conservation of harlequin frogs (Atelopus spp) using behavioral and physiological indicators. PLOS ONE 9(2), e90218.

We have established ex situ assurance colonies of two endangered Panamanian harlequin frogs, Atelopus certus and Atelopus glyphus, but observed that males fought with each other when housed as a group. Housing frogs individually eliminated...

Rehrig, A., DiVincenti, L., Schery, L. A. 2014. Social housing of non-human primates in a research facility: socialisation across macaque species and sexes. Animal Welfare 23(4), 387-389.

Refinement of social housing practices is paramount to improving animal welfare in laboratory environments, especially with regard to non-human primates. Even though social housing of the same species should be considered the optimal paradigm, cynomolgus...

Nelsen, S. L., Bradford, D., Houghton, P. 2014. A comparison of two social housing techniques for sexually mature male cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Primatology 76(S1), 104. (37th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #208)

Social species of nonhuman primates, such as macaques, should be given the opportunity for social access to conspecifics. In captive laboratory settings, creating a system to provide this opportunity can be challenging, especially concerning sexually...

McCrossin, F. G. 2014. The effect of pair housing on the aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis). American Journal of Primatology 76(S1), 54. (37th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #52)

Aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis) are thought to be solitary animals and are often housed alone in captivity. However, for all primates sociality is known to play a major role in psychological well-being. Captive animals can develop...

McCully, C. L., MacAllister, R. P., Smedley, J. et al. 2014. The longevity of a nonhuman primate social housing strategy: A review of group housing for rhesus male macaques maintained on active protocols in biomedical research. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 566-567 (Abstract #PS67).

Regulatory mandates promoting the psychologic wellbeing and addressing the social needs of nonhuman primates have been well described. In response to these directives, in 1992, we initially reported a successful group housing strategy for instrumented...

Lutz, C. K., Williams, P. C., Sharp, R. M. 2014. Abnormal behavior and associated risk factors in captive baboons (Papio hamadryas spp.). American Journal of Primatology 76(4), 355-361.

Abnormal behavior, ranging from motor stereotypies to self‐injurious behavior, has been documented in captive nonhuman primates, with risk factors including nursery rearing, single housing, and veterinary procedures. Much of this research has focused on macaque...

Crast, J., Bloomsmith, M. A., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2014. Abnormal behaviour in captive sooty mangabeys. Animal Welfare 23(2), 167-177.

The influence of several factors on abnormal behaviour was investigated in 46 singly housed sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) (eight nursery-reared, 38 mother-reared), including self-injurious, self-directed, stereotypic locomotion, and faeces/urine-related behaviours (SIB, SDB, SL, FUR, respectively)...

Baker, K. C., Coleman, K., Bloomsmith, M. A. et al. 2014. Pairing rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): methodology and outcomes at four national primate research centers. American Journal of Primatology 76(S1), 104. (37th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #207)

Pairing laboratory macaques is a high priority goal for many behavioral management programs. There are numerous methodological differences in introduction procedures across facilities, including the intermediate stages used between single housing and full contact. A...

Baker, K. C., Bloomsmith, M. A., Oettinger, B. et al. 2014. Comparing options for pair housing rhesus macaques using behavioral welfare measures. American Journal of Primatology 76(1), 30-42.

In a biomedical research environment, research or management procedures may render continuous full contact pairing of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) unfeasible. This study aimed to determine whether separation on a frequent basis or housing in...

Abney, D. M., Toscano, J. E., Poor, L. L. et al. 2014. Successful social housing of adult male cynomolgus macaques with similar bodyweights. American Journal of Primatology 76(S1), 86. (37th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #151)

At Charles River Laboratories, we are committed to ensuring all animals have the highest level of care and welfare. To this end, our social housing program includes placing all nonhuman primates in pairs or groups...

Abney, D. M., Harding, K., Toscano, J. et al. 2014. Successful social housing of mature male cynomolgus macaques in mixed sex rooms. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 567. (Abstract #P70).

We are committed to ensuring all our animals have the highest level of care and welfare. To this end, our social housing program includes placing all animals in pairs or groups. We have a rate...

van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Mulenga, I. C., Chidester, D. L. 2014. Early social deprivation negatively affects social skill acquisition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Animal Cognition 17(2), 407–414.

In a highly social species like chimpanzees, the process by which individuals become attuned to their social environment may be of vital importance to their chances of survival. Typically, this socialization process, defined by all...

Bergman, T. J., Sheehan, M. J. 2013. Social knowledge and signal in primates. American Journal of Primatology 75(7), 683-694.

Primates are notable for having a rich and detailed understanding of their social environment and there has been great interest in the evolution and function of social knowledge in primates. Indeed, primates have been shown...

West, A. M., Carey, M., Wagner, W. et al. 2013. Full-contact social housing of non-human primates (Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis) in a biomedical research facility: Initiation and implementation. American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 98. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #216)

Animal welfare regulations have required social housing of primates for more than two decades, although many veterinary and scientific exemptions have been approved with oversight by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). In recent...

Steward, A. L., Sorenson, A., Elliot, K. et al. 2013. Variables affecting indoor pairing success in adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 48. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #60)

In research centers that study primates, pairing unfamiliar subjects is the most costly and difficult problem that staff face. Recent studies in adult rhesus macaques suggest that social competence and sociality, as measured by ease...

Reinhardt, V. (ed.) 2013. Compassion Makes a Difference - Discussions by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum [LAREF], Volume III. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

This is the third volume of discussions that took place on the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum (LAREF). This forum is dedicated to the exchange of personal experiences of refining the conditions under which...

Maguire-Herring, V., Stonemetz, K. M., Lynch, L. J. et al. 2013. The effect of weight on the compatibility of isosexual pairs of captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 77. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #148)

Recently, there has been an increase in the implementation of social housing as an effective behavioral management strategy to improve the psychological well-being of captive nonhuman primates. Social housing nonhuman primates with conspecifics provides many...

Gottlieb, D. H., Capitanio, J. P., McCowan, B. 2013. Risk factors for stereotypic behavior and self-biting in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): Animal's history, current environment, and personality. American Journal of Primatology 75(10), 995-1008.

Captive rhesus macaques sometimes exhibit undesirable abnormal behaviors, such as motor stereotypic behavior (MSB) and self-abuse. Many risk factors for these behaviors have been identified but the list is far from comprehensive, and large individual...

Kuhlman, G. 2013. Social housing program for sexually mature male macaques. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 660 (Abstract #132).

To ensure both regulatory compliance and high animal welfare standards a program was initiated in our facility to allow sexually mature male macaques the opportunity for social housing. Historically, there had been concern over social...

Scott, J. A., Taylor, D. 2013. Effects of environment and enrichment on the behavior and serum corticosterone levels in Xenopus laevis. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 662 (Abstract #P145).

Xenopus laevis is a commonly used research animal for which well accepted enrichment strategies have not been established. Our overall objective was to identify enrichment strategies that are most beneficial to Xenopus as a step...

Savage, S. 2013. Kidding around in the laboratory animal facility - Goat enrichment. Enrichment Record 14, 14-15.

Goat enrichment can be incredibly rewarding, not only for the goat, but for personnel as well. In our facility, we often refer to goatenrichment tasks as technician (or vet!) enrichment. Somewhere in the evolutionary development...