Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Coleman, K., Houser, L. A., Maier, A. 2013. Improving the efficiency of positive reinforcement training for non-human primates. American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 66. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #115)

There are many benefits of positive reinforcement training (PRT). PRT reduces stress for subjects and as such is a significant refinement to animal care practices. However, training can be time intensive, and not all animals...

Burghardt, G. M. 2013. Environmental enrichment and cognitive complexity in reptiles and amphibians: Concepts, review, and implications for captive populations. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 147(3-4), 286-298.

Reptiles and amphibians have been neglected in research on cognition, emotions, sociality, need for enriched and stimulating environments, and other topics that have been greatly emphasized in work on mammals and birds. This is also...

Carey, M. C., West, A. M., Diaz, B. et al. 2013. Enrichment object preferences in laboratory rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 81. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #162)

To promote the psychological well-being of captive non-human primates, facilities develop and implement an environmental enhancement plan (Animal Welfare Act, Section 3.81). Enrichment options described in the plan should be selected to demonstrably promote species-typical...

Bushmitz, M. 2013. Primates in Medical Research. Understanding Animal Research, London, UK.

This very well illustrated, informative book is divided into the following chapters: (1) Why do we use primates in research? (2) Primate species we use. (3) History of medical advances. (4) Areas of research. (5)...

Bridges, J. P., Mocarski, E. C., Reamer, L. A. et al. 2013. Weight management in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) using a modified feeding device. American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 51. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #68)

Obesity, a common concern in captive chimpanzee populations, may lead to the development of various diseases and increase anesthetic risks. The aim of this study was to modify the current biscuit feeding devices and to...

Breaux, S. D., Breaux, M. B., Fontenot, M. B. 2013. Positive reinforcement training effects on hemogram and chemistry parameters in chimpanzees. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 669 (Abstract #175).

Positive reinforcement training (PRT) is used at various biomedical research facilities and zoos in order to facilitate animal husbandry activities as well as veterinary procedures. Previous research suggests that the use of PRT helps alleviate...

Bloomsmith, M., Franklin, A., Neu, K. et al. 2013. Training time required to collect a variety of biological samples using primarily positive reinforcement training methods. American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 65. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #112)

Positive reinforcement training (PRT) methods can be applied to gain the voluntary cooperation of laboratory primates with the collection of biological samples. Information will be provided on training techniques used and the amount of training...

Bliss-Moreau, E., Moadab, G., Theil, J. 2013. Efficient cooperative chair training. American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 67. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #118)

Traditional procedures for training nonhuman primates to be restrained in chairs typically involve very little use of positive reinforcement. In this talk, we detail a refined chair training procedure which uses a mix of positive...

Benton, C. G., West, M. W., Hall, S. M. et al. 2013. Effect of short-term pair housing of juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) on immunologic parameters. JAALAS 52(3), 240-246.

Social housing of nonhuman primates (NHP) in an infectious disease setting presents unique challenges, and individual housing is often scientifically justified. At our institute, we recognized an opportunity to limit individual housing to the minimal...

Begnoche, C. A., Novak, M. A. 2013. Behavioral effects of construction noises and vibrations on captive rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 47. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #56)

The effects of irregular vibrations on rodents and livestock have been well documented, but little information about vibration effects is available in non-human primates. This study assessed the long-term impact of construction of 7 new...

Baumans, V., Bennett, K., Donnelly, M. et al. 2013. The problem with the dark bottom-row cage for non-human primates: A discussion by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 12, 111-114.

Since there is evidence that the bottom cages can impact research, this should be a good reason to eliminate the two-tier system with its species-inappropriate bottom-tier cages.

Baker, K. C., Bauer, S. A. 2013. Behavior, body condition, and hair coat quality in differentially-reared rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 75(S1), 92. (36th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #196)

Nursery rearing of rhesus macaques may be necessitated by management or research reasons as well as for the derivation of Specific Pathogen Free breeding colonies. Toward this last aim, the Tulane National Primate Research Center...

Rose, A. M. 2013. An inexpensive approach to social housing enrichment for laboratory rabbits and guinea pigs. Laboratory Animal Science Professional 1(4) (December), 46-48.

We analyzed our current enrichment protocols in order to develop and implement social experiences for our rabbit and guinea pig colonies. This article describes the development of an exercise pen for rabbits and a custom-made...

Warwick, C., Arena, P., Lindley, S. et al. 2013. Assessing reptile welfare using behavioural criteria. In Practice 35(3), 123-131.

While clinical reptile medicine as a science is in its ascendancy among veterinary surgeons and other interested groups, familiarity with the often related issue of reptilian behavioural and psychological health appears less common. Behavioural change...

Wolfensohn, S., Hawkins, P., Lilley, E. et al. 2013. Reducing suffering in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods 67(3), 169-176.

This report is based on discussions and submissions from an expert working group consisting of veterinarians, animal care staff and scientists with expert knowledge relevant to the field. It aims to facilitate the implementation of...

Gazes, R. P., Brown, E. K., Basile, B. M. et al. 2013. Automated cognitive testing of monkeys in social groups yields results comparable to individual laboratory-based testing. Animal Cognition 16(3), 445–458.

Cognitive abilities likely evolved in response to specific environmental and social challenges and are therefore expected to be specialized for the life history of each species. Specialized cognitive abilities may be most readily engaged under...

Andrist, C. A., Bigler, L. M., Wurbel, H. W. et al. 2012. Effects of group stability on aggression, stress and injuries in breeding rabbits. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 142(3-4), 182-188.

On Swiss rabbit breeding farms, group-housed does are usually kept singly for 12 days around parturition to avoid pseudogravidity, double litters and deleterious fighting for nests. After this isolation phase there is usually an integration...

Westlund, K., Fernstrom, A.L., Wergard, E.-M. et al. 2012. Physiological and behavioural stress responses in cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) to noise associated with construction work. Laboratory Animals 46(1), 51-58.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the behavioural and physiological responses to environmental disturbances (live and recorded dynamite explosions) in laboratory non-human primates in preparation for a future tunnel construction underneath our...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2012. Behavioral assessment of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) pairs through a common laboratory event. American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 42. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #54)

Using behavioral data to predict pair stability would be helpful for improving management of pairs and prevention of injury. Differences in reactions to presumed laboratory stressors, such as location moves, may provide information about pair...

Sherenco, K. D., Weed, J. L., Tustin, G. W. et al. 2012. Pair formations and management within a captive breeding Aotus colony over a ten year time period. American Journal of Primatology 74(S1), 44. (35th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #60)

Providing social housing that mimics the species' natural group composition should be an aim for all captive environments. Aotus are nocturnal, monogamist primates whose offspring (both male and female) disperse at sexual maturity, living solitarily...

Ryan, E. B., Proudfoot, K. L., Fraser, D. 2012. The effect of feeding enrichment methods on the behavior of captive Western lowland gorillas. Zoo Biology 31(2), 235-241.

Three feeding enrichment treatments were tested in an outdoor yard used by six Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). In "Yard-toss", forage was thrown by hand over one third of the yard. In "Set-up", forage...

Perlman, J. E., Bloomsmith, M. A., Whittaker, M. A. et al. 2012. Implementing positive reinforcement animal training programs at primate laboratories. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 137(3-4), 114-126.

In the last decade several surveys of primate care and training programs highlight a common theme; despite scientific evidence that animal training can be effective in reducing stress, increasing efficiency and improving veterinary care, animal...

Olivo, D. 2012. The benefits of adding a little color to a monkey's environment. Enrichment Record 10, 7.

Imagine if your everyday world was boring, blah and completely sterile looking with limited amounts of color. Unimaginable, right? Here at Legacy Schering Plough/Merck, we thought the same about our nonhuman primates who look at...

Metcalf Pate, K. A., Freeman, Z. T., Shirk, E. et al. 2012. Platelet activation in the context of stress in self-injurious rhesus macaques. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 640 (Abstract #PS49).

Stress has been associated with adverse hematologic and physiologic consequences, including immunosuppression and an increased risk of cardiac disease. Aberrant platelet activation has been documented in humans exposed to mental stress, and activated platelets, as...

McComb, M. M., Code, R. A., Merrick, J. M. et al. 2012. Assessment of the reinforcing potential of auditory enrichment in adult male rhesus macaques. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 640 (Abstract #PS48).

Environmental enrichment is a concept that describes how the environment of captive animals can be changed for the benefit of the inhabitants. In 2000, Wright and colleagues suggested that tonal melodies form musical gestalts for...