Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Gudsnuk, K., Champagne, F. A. 2012. Epigenetic influence of stress and social environment. ILAR Journal 53(3-4), 279-288.

Animal models of early-life stress and variation in social experience across the lifespan have contributed significantly to our understanding of the environmental regulation of the developing brain. Plasticity in neurobiological pathways regulating stress responsivity, cognition...

de Paula Vieira, A., Weary, D. M., de Passillé, A. M. 2012. Effects of the early social environment on behavioral responses of dairy calves to novel events. Journal of Dairy Science 95(9), 5149-5155.

Providing young animals the opportunity to engage in more complex social interactions is hypothesized to improve their capacity to cope with changing environments. To test the effects of the early social environment on the behavioral...

Duve, L. R., Jensen, M. B. 2012. Social behavior of young dairy calves housed with limited or full social contact with a peer. Journal of Dairy Science 95(10), 5936-5945.

This study compared the effect of individual and pair housing and age at pair housing on the social behavior of young dairy calves. Twenty-seven pairs of calves were reared from birth until 6 wk either...

Research Department, RSPCA. 2011. Rabbits: Good Practice for Housing and Care (3rd edition).

This report describes what rabbits need in terms of social housing, enclosure size and type, and environmental enrichment. It also describes potential husbandry-related welfare problems and how to resolve them.

Baran, S. W., Froberg-Fejko, K., Lecker, J. et al. 2010. Post-surgical environmental enrichment in rodents. Enrichment Record 3, 4-6.

Environmental enrichment is a key component of rodent animal welfare since it influences the animal’s overall well-being, provides opportunities for activity, and encourages rodent appropriate behaviors. Many aspects of rodent enrichment have received a significant...

Araki, A. 2010. Using environmental enrichment to reduce fighting in mice. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 15(4), 6.

A colony of mice (base strain C57Bl6) was transferred to Oregon State University. Fighting was observed in six cages of males (2 to 5 mice per cage) at cage change, but not during daily checks...

Mayfield, K. L., Livingston, L. G., Kirby, D. W. 2010. Floor housing rabbits to promote weight loss and species-specific behaviors. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 706-707 (Abstract #P81).

Standard rabbit caging offers little in the way of exercise, vertical space for species-typical movements (that is, standing on hind limbs), or ample space for proper social introductions. One commonly used rabbit breed, the New...

Lofgren, J. L., Wrong, C., Hayward, A. et al. 2010. Innovative social rabbit housing. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 659 (Abstract #PS13).

While female rabbits can be safely cohoused, aggression and resulting fight wounds preclude cohousing males. However, males may still benefit from social enrichment. Currently no housing systems provide males a safe opportunity for social interaction...

Edgar, J. L., Seaman, S. C. 2010. The effect of mirrors on the behaviour of singly housed male and female laboratory rabbits. Animal Welfare 19(4), 461-471.

It is widely recognised that single housing is detrimental to the welfare of social species. However, some experimental procedures dictate that laboratory animals are housed individually. There is evidence to suggest that, by mimicking social...

Fuller, A. 2009. Successful pair housing of female New Zealand white rabbits. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 14(4), 2-3.

The veterinary staff at our facility has been working to pair house the female New Zealand white rabbits in our training colony. These rabbits range in size, age, and temperament, which can make finding potential...

Villeneuve, L., Méthot, H., Cinq-Mars, D. et al. 2009. Effect of individual or paired housing during post-weaning on feed intake, growth rate and behaviour of lambs. Small Ruminant Research 85(2-3), 99-104.

The aim of this study was to compare the behaviour and weight gain of weaned lambs penned either in pairs or alone, with visual and tactile contacts between pens. A 2 × 2 factorial experiment...

Nowak, R., Porter, R. H., Blache, D. et al. 2008. Behavior and welfare of the sheep. In: The Welfare of Sheep. Dwyer, C. M. (ed). Springer, New York, NY.

The most important features of the behaviour of sheep are their marked sociality and the bond formation between mother and young. Sheep show a strong need to stay with their group (or subgroup for some...

Hawkins, P., Hubrecht, R., Buckwell, A. et al. 2008. Refining Rabbit Care: A Resource for Those Working With Rabbits in Research. UFAW/RSPCA: Southwater, UK, 27 pp.

The report sets out how to provide: optimal enclosure characteristicsand size; social housing; solid flooring and substrate; raised areas; refuges; gnawing objects and dietary enrichment; positive interaction with humans; toys and objects to manipulate; for...

Van Loo, P. L. P., Kuin, N., Sommer, R. et al. 2007. Impact of 'living apart together' on postoperative recovery of mice compared with social and individual housing. Laboratory Animals 41(4), 441-455.

We investigated whether housing two female mice in a cage, separated by a grid partition ('living apart together') counters the adverse effects of individual housing on postoperative recovery. Results indicated that socially housed mice appear...

Kirby, H. 2007. Providing single rabbits with social contact and choice in activities. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 12(2), 1-2.

Perforated cage deviders are used to provide non-contact communication.

Gonder, J. C., Laber, K. 2007. A renewed look at laboratory rodent housing and management. ILAR Journal 48(1), 29-46.

In this article, recent publications are examined to determine the potential impact of new scientific evidence on current practices for the housing and care of laboratory rodents. The discussion points out recent advances in technology...

Van Loo, P., Skoumbourdis, E., Reinhardt, V. 2006. Postsurgical pairing: A discussion by the Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 5(1), 17-19.

Our experience-based discussion suggests that social animals benefit from compatible companionship during post-operative recovery. The traditional practice of keeping animals alone in an unfamiliar environment after surgery increases the subjects surgery-associated stress. Providing a familiar...

Bayne, K. 2005. Potential for unintended consequences of environmental enrihment for laboratory animals and research results. ILAR Journal 46(2), 129-139.

Many aspects of the research animal's housing environment are controlled for quality and/or standardization. Of recent interest is the potential for environmental enrichment to have unexpected consequences such as unintended harm to the animal, or...

Raje, S. S., Stewart, K. L. 1997. Group housing for male New Zealand White rabbits. Lab Animal 26(4), 36-37.

Establishing a group of 5 castrated male rabbits resulted in all but one rabbit suffering some kind of minor injury during a major conflict on day 6. Housing the two older animals together as a...

Love, J. A., Hammond, K. 1991. Group-housing rabbits. Lab Animal 20(8), 37-43.

The management and success of a group-housing indoor/outdoor pen system for rabbits [mainly females] is described and discussed. Over a three-year study period a total of 141,000 rabbits were included in the assessment. The levels...

Panksepp J., Bean, N. J., Bishop, P. et al. 1980. Opioid blockade and social comfort in chicks. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 13(5), 673-83.

When young animals are separated from their normal social environment in groups they distress vocalize (DV) less than when isolated alone. Opioid blockade with naloxone (1 mg/kg peripherally, and 1 microgram centrally) increased crying more...

Panksepp, J., Herman, B. H., Vilberg, T. et al. 1980. Endogenous opioids and social behavior. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 4(4), 473-487.

Evidence for the hypothesis that brain-opioids mediate social affect and social attachments is summarized. Opiates and opioids are very effective in reducing social separation-induced distress vocalizations (DVs), in puppies, young guinea pigs and chicks, while...

Price, E. O., Thos, J. 1980. Behavioral responses of short-term isolation in sheep and goats. Applied Animal Ethology (Applied Animal Behaviour Science) 6(4), 331-339.

Behavioral stress responses to social deprivation are described.

Herreid, C. F., Schlenker, E. H. 1980. Energetics of mice in stable and unstable social conditions: evidence of an air-borne factor affecting metabolism. Animal Behaviour 28, 20-28.

Male mice kept individually have a 15% higher metabolic rate than mice kept in stable same gender pairs.

Gutwein, B. M., Fishbein, W. 1980. Paradoxical sleep and memory (I): Selective alterations following enriched and impoverished environmental rearing. Brain Research Bulletin 5(1), 9-12.

Mice were reared in either enriched (EE), social control, (SE), or impoverished (IE) environments for 30 days. Environmental enrichment results in a significant and selective increase in paradoxical sleep (PS, or REM sleep) and also...