Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Gonder, J. C., Laber, K. 2007. A renewed look at laboratory rodent housing and management. ILAR Journal 48(1), 29-46.

In this article, recent publications are examined to determine the potential impact of new scientific evidence on current practices for the housing and care of laboratory rodents. The discussion points out recent advances in technology...

Van Loo, P., Skoumbourdis, E., Reinhardt, V. 2006. Postsurgical pairing: A discussion by the Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 5(1), 17-19.

Our experience-based discussion suggests that social animals benefit from compatible companionship during post-operative recovery. The traditional practice of keeping animals alone in an unfamiliar environment after surgery increases the subjects surgery-associated stress. Providing a familiar...

Lutz, C. K., Novak, M. 2005. Environmental enrichment for nonhuman primates: Theory and application. ILAR Journal 46(2), 178-191.

Only social contact satisfies the goal of promoting a wide variety of species-typical activities while at the same time reducing or preventing the development of abnormal behavior... A number of toys should be provided initially...

Kulpa-Eddy, J. A., Taylor, S., Adams, K. M. 2005. USDA perspectives on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR Journal 46(2), 83-94.

This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of...

Bayne, K. 2005. Potential for unintended consequences of environmental enrihment for laboratory animals and research results. ILAR Journal 46(2), 129-139.

Many aspects of the research animal's housing environment are controlled for quality and/or standardization. Of recent interest is the potential for environmental enrichment to have unexpected consequences such as unintended harm to the animal, or...

Reinhardt, V. 2002. The myth of the aggressive monkey. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 5(4), 321-330.

Captive rhesus macaques are not intrinsically aggressive, but poor husbandry and handling practices can trigger their aggression towards conspecifics and towards the human handler. The statement 'rhesus macaques are so aggressive animals' is probably based...

Guhad, F., Augustsson, H., Hau, J. 1998. The Törneby Primate Facility optimisation of housing conditions for rhesus macaques in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 25(4), 173-176.

Group-housing arrangements for rhesus macaques and husbandry implications are described.

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Schapiro, S. J., Bloomsmith, M. A., Suarez, S. A. et al. 1997. A comparison of the effects of simple versus complex environmental enrichment on the behaviour of group-housed, subadult rhesus macaques. Animal Welfare 6, 17-28.

Enrichment of the environments of captive primates is currently of interest as both a basic and an applied research question, particularly when social and inanimate enhancements are used simultaneously. We measured the hehavioural effects of...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Species-adequate housing and handling conditions for Old World nonhuman primates kept in research institutions. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 85-93. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

Practical recommendations to address five basic characteristics of Old World primates in the laboratory setting: a) social disposition, b) semi-arboreal lifestyle, c) complex living environment, d) intelligence, e) sensitivity to distress.

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Refining the traditional housing and handling of laboratory rhesus macaques improves scientific methodology. Primate Report 49, 93-112.

A monkey housed in an empty cage, however, is literally a behavioral cripple because s/he is chronically deprived of appropriate stimuli for the expression of species-typical behavior patterns. It is difficult to know objectively if...

Crockett, C. M., Bellanca, R. U., Bowers, C. L. et al. 1997. Grooming-contact bars provide social contact for individually caged laboratory primates. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 36(6), 53-60.

We investigated pair housing of adult long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) by using widely spaced, vertical "grooming-contact" (G-C) bars that allow physical contact but prevent pursuit by one animal into the other's cage. Cages with G-C...

Raje, S. S., Stewart, K. L. 1997. Group housing for male New Zealand White rabbits. Lab Animal 26(4), 36-37.

Establishing a group of 5 castrated male rabbits resulted in all but one rabbit suffering some kind of minor injury during a major conflict on day 6. Housing the two older animals together as a...

Burge, T., Panoussis, B., Weber, H. 1997. Primate housing facilities for pharmaceutical research in Switzerland (an example). Primate Report 49, 19-22.

According to the Swiss Animal Welfare Legislation, the minimal enclosure area for macaques of the size of rhesus or cynomolgus monkeys for experimental purposes is 15 cubic meters. In such an enclosure up to 5...

Reinhardt, V., Liss, C., Stevens, C. 1995. Social housing of previously single-caged macaques: What are the options and the risks? Animal Welfare 4(4), 307-328 .

A review of the scientific literature gives evidence that transferring previously single-caged adult macaques to permanent compatible pair-housing arrangements (isosexual pairs, adult/infant pairs) is associated with less risk of injury and morbidity than transferring them...

Schapiro, S. J., Bushong, D. 1994. Effects of enrichment on veterinary treatment of laboratory rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 3(1), 25-36.

For captive primates, environmental enrichment may improve psychological well-being, as indicated by changes in the frequency of species-typical and abnormal behaviours. The effects of enrichment on physical well-being have also been examined, but little attention...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Social enrichment for previously single-caged stump-tail macaques. Animal Technology 5, 37-41.

Isosexual pair-housing of ten female and six male previously single-caged adult stump-tailed macaques (Macaca arctoides) was attempted. Partners were introduced to each other following the establishment of rank relationships during a three-day non-contact familiarization period...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Safe pair formation technique for previously single-caged rhesus macaques. In Touch 1(3), 5-6.

A safe pair formation technique is described. All 20 [adult male] pairs were compatible during pair formation and throughout the 2-month follow-up period.

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Pair-housing rather than single-housing for laboratory rhesus macaques. Journal of Medical Primatology 23(8), 426-431.

Two different pair formation options for adult female and male rhesus macaques are described and tested: Pairing adults with adults of the same sex after establishment of dominance-subordination relationships during a noncontact familiarization period, and...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Effective environmental enrichment for caged rhesus macaques. In Touch 1(2), 1 & 3-5.

The animals spent approximately 20% of the [day] time interacting with the companion, 10% perching on the PVC pipe, 4% gnawing/manipulating the branch segment and 7% foraging for primary food.

Meshik, V. A. 1994. Group formation in adult Japanese macaques. International Zoo News 41(3), 5-9.

Starting with submissive animals, individuals from the first group [2 females and 1 male] were introduced step by step to the second [resident] group [3 females and 1 male]. A new group was successfully formed...

Visalberghi, E., Anderson, J. R. 1993. Reasons and risks associated with manipulating captive primates' social environments. Animal Welfare 2(1), 3-15 .

Review of the implications of experimental or management-related manipulations of the social environment of captive primates for the animals' welfare. Relatively little empirical work has been done on the effects of manipulation of the social...

Swett, W. W. 1993. The resocialization and rehabilitation of humanized and abused primates. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 440-443.

Author presents case histories of Primarily Primate's treatment of individual primates with problems common to humanized and abused primates. Among the methods effectively used were gradual introduction to other primates, (sometimes with the use of...

Reinhardt, V., Hurwitz, S. 1993. Evaluation of social enrichment for aged rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 44, 53-57.

The effect of a compatible companion on the behaviour and bodyweight of eight previously single-caged, 31-36 years old rhesus macaques was assessed 16 months after pair formation. The aged subjects preferred to stay in close...

Bercovitch, F., Kessler, M. J. 1993. Primate facilities and environmental enrichment: An ecological and evolutionary perspective. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 435-439.

The environmental enrichment program of the Caribbean Primate Research Center is guided by an evolutionary and ecological perspective. The evolutionary perspective suggests that primates should be housed in enclosures that provide a social and physical...