Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
McCowen, B., Anderson, K., Heagerty, A. et al. 2007. Behavioral management of deleterious aggression in rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 91. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #125)

New management strategies for detecting social instabilities and promoting social cohesion are needed to reduce aggression-based morbidity and mortality among captive groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). This study determined the utility of social network...

LAREF [Laboratory Animal Refinement and Enrichment Forum] 2007. Chapter 7.4. Pole-and-collar training of macaques. In: Making Lives Easier for Animals in Research Labs: Discussions by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Baumans, V., Coke, C., Green, J., Moreau, E., Morton, D., Patterson-Kane, E., Reinhardt, A., Reinhardt, V., Van Loo, P. (eds), 127-130. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

While strictly using positive reinforcement and applying patient gentle-firmness, most macaques can be trained to cooperate during the pole-attachment-chairing procedure. Some cannot be trained, because they have problems overcoming their often-legitimate mistrust of humans.

Depeine, C. D., Bernhard, D. E., Newman, J. D. 2007. Consistency of vocal behavior during brief separations in common marmosets. American Journal of Primatology 69(S1), 107. (30th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #156)

Studies of the vocal behavior of captive nonhuman primates need to balance the requirement of maximizing the quality of the data collected with the desirability of minimizing the stress any procedures associated with data collection...

Kirby, H. 2007. Providing single rabbits with social contact and choice in activities. Tech Talk [The Newsletter for Laboratory Animal Science Technicians] 12(2), 1-2.

Perforated cage deviders are used to provide non-contact communication.

Ball, R. S. 2006. Issues to consider for preparing ferrets as research subjects in the laboratory. ILAR Journal 47(4), 348-357.

Successful housing requires knowledge of ferret behaviors including social behavior, eating habits, a general inquisitive nature, and a species-typical need to burrow and hide. Regular handling is necessary to maintain well-being. A ferret health care...

Van Loo, P., Skoumbourdis, E., Reinhardt, V. 2006. Postsurgical pairing: A discussion by the Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Animal Technology and Welfare 5(1), 17-19.

Our experience-based discussion suggests that social animals benefit from compatible companionship during post-operative recovery. The traditional practice of keeping animals alone in an unfamiliar environment after surgery increases the subjects surgery-associated stress. Providing a familiar...

Skoumbourdis, E. K., Potratz, K. 2005. Diazepam is more effective than midazolam when used as an aid in chair training non-human primates. American Journal of Primatology 66(S1), 164. (28th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #176)

Non-human primates (NHPs) are utilized frequently in biomedical research and can be difficult and sometimes dangerous to handle. Because of this, restraint is sometimes necessary for data collection. Restraint chair training is generally a straightforward...

Lutz, C. K., Novak, M. 2005. Environmental enrichment for nonhuman primates: Theory and application. ILAR Journal 46(2), 178-191.

Only social contact satisfies the goal of promoting a wide variety of species-typical activities while at the same time reducing or preventing the development of abnormal behavior... A number of toys should be provided initially...

Kulpa-Eddy, J. A., Taylor, S., Adams, K. M. 2005. USDA perspectives on environmental enrichment for animals. ILAR Journal 46(2), 83-94.

This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of...

Bayne, K. 2005. Potential for unintended consequences of environmental enrihment for laboratory animals and research results. ILAR Journal 46(2), 129-139.

Many aspects of the research animal's housing environment are controlled for quality and/or standardization. Of recent interest is the potential for environmental enrichment to have unexpected consequences such as unintended harm to the animal, or...

Mikkelsen, L. F., Bentsen, H., Gerlach, B. 2003. The restraint platform - refinement of long term restraining of dogs for experimental procedures. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 30(4), 217-219.

This short communication describes a new method for the long term restraining of dogs for experimental procedures like multiple blood sampling. The newly developed platform offers the dog a choice either to lie down, sit...

Bassett, L., Buchanan-Smith, H. M., McKinley, J. et al. 2003. Effects of training on stress-related behavior of the common marmost (Callithrix jacchus) in relation to coping with routine husbandry procedures. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(3), 221-233.

Using positive reinforcement, J. McKinley trained 12 common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) to provide urine samples on request. The study then exposed the marmosets to mildly stressful, routine husbandry procedures (i.e., capture and weighing). The nonhuman...

Reinhardt, V. 2002. The myth of the aggressive monkey. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 5(4), 321-330.

Captive rhesus macaques are not intrinsically aggressive, but poor husbandry and handling practices can trigger their aggression towards conspecifics and towards the human handler. The statement 'rhesus macaques are so aggressive animals' is probably based...

Guhad, F., Augustsson, H., Hau, J. 1998. The Törneby Primate Facility optimisation of housing conditions for rhesus macaques in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 25(4), 173-176.

Group-housing arrangements for rhesus macaques and husbandry implications are described.

Downman, M. 1998. The formation of a bachelor group of gorillas at Loro Parque. International Zoo News 45, 208-211.

Successful bachelor group formation protocol is described.

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Vermeer, J. 1997. The formation of a captive squirrel monkey group. International Zoo News 44, 146-149.

It is important that all females of a new [heterosexual] group are related to each other, that is, that they come from the same natal group. The introduction of unfamiliar females to a small group...

Schnell, C. R., Gerber, P. 1997. Training and remote monitoring of cardiovascular parameters in non-human primates. Primate Report 49, 61-70.

The use of "pre-invasive" implantable radio telemetry has revolutionized the collection of physiological data under stress-free conditions. It is now possible to measure accurately 'normal' baseline data of haemodynamic and electrical parameters in conscious and...

Schapiro, S. J., Bloomsmith, M. A., Suarez, S. A. et al. 1997. A comparison of the effects of simple versus complex environmental enrichment on the behaviour of group-housed, subadult rhesus macaques. Animal Welfare 6, 17-28.

Enrichment of the environments of captive primates is currently of interest as both a basic and an applied research question, particularly when social and inanimate enhancements are used simultaneously. We measured the hehavioural effects of...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: A review. Animal Technology 48, 55-73.

Twenty-six reports provide detailed information of how primates can be trained to voluntarily cooperate - rather than resist - during blood collection, injection, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine collection, and capture.

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Species-adequate housing and handling conditions for Old World nonhuman primates kept in research institutions. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 85-93. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

Practical recommendations to address five basic characteristics of Old World primates in the laboratory setting: a) social disposition, b) semi-arboreal lifestyle, c) complex living environment, d) intelligence, e) sensitivity to distress.

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Refining the traditional housing and handling of laboratory rhesus macaques improves scientific methodology. Primate Report 49, 93-112.

A monkey housed in an empty cage, however, is literally a behavioral cripple because s/he is chronically deprived of appropriate stimuli for the expression of species-typical behavior patterns. It is difficult to know objectively if...

Crockett, C. M., Bellanca, R. U., Bowers, C. L. et al. 1997. Grooming-contact bars provide social contact for individually caged laboratory primates. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 36(6), 53-60.

We investigated pair housing of adult long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) by using widely spaced, vertical "grooming-contact" (G-C) bars that allow physical contact but prevent pursuit by one animal into the other's cage. Cages with G-C...

Raje, S. S., Stewart, K. L. 1997. Group housing for male New Zealand White rabbits. Lab Animal 26(4), 36-37.

Establishing a group of 5 castrated male rabbits resulted in all but one rabbit suffering some kind of minor injury during a major conflict on day 6. Housing the two older animals together as a...

Buchanan-Smith, H. M. 1997. Considerations for the housing and handling of New World primates in the laboratory. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 75-84. Animal Welfare Institute: Washington, DC.

Caretakers should seek knowledge of the natural lifestyles of the primates in their charge, and attempt to reproduce in the captive environment the salient aspects of the natural habitats that are biologically relevant to the...