Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Reinhardt, V. 1994. Pair-housing rather than single-housing for laboratory rhesus macaques. Journal of Medical Primatology 23(8), 426-431.

Two different pair formation options for adult female and male rhesus macaques are described and tested: Pairing adults with adults of the same sex after establishment of dominance-subordination relationships during a noncontact familiarization period, and...

Reinhardt, V. 1994. Effective environmental enrichment for caged rhesus macaques. In Touch 1(2), 1 & 3-5.

The animals spent approximately 20% of the [day] time interacting with the companion, 10% perching on the PVC pipe, 4% gnawing/manipulating the branch segment and 7% foraging for primary food.

Meshik, V. A. 1994. Group formation in adult Japanese macaques. International Zoo News 41(3), 5-9.

Starting with submissive animals, individuals from the first group [2 females and 1 male] were introduced step by step to the second [resident] group [3 females and 1 male]. A new group was successfully formed...

Visalberghi, E., Anderson, J. R. 1993. Reasons and risks associated with manipulating captive primates' social environments. Animal Welfare 2(1), 3-15 .

Review of the implications of experimental or management-related manipulations of the social environment of captive primates for the animals' welfare. Relatively little empirical work has been done on the effects of manipulation of the social...

Swett, W. W. 1993. The resocialization and rehabilitation of humanized and abused primates. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 440-443.

Author presents case histories of Primarily Primate's treatment of individual primates with problems common to humanized and abused primates. Among the methods effectively used were gradual introduction to other primates, (sometimes with the use of...

Reinhardt, V., Hurwitz, S. 1993. Evaluation of social enrichment for aged rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 44, 53-57.

The effect of a compatible companion on the behaviour and bodyweight of eight previously single-caged, 31-36 years old rhesus macaques was assessed 16 months after pair formation. The aged subjects preferred to stay in close...

Bercovitch, F., Kessler, M. J. 1993. Primate facilities and environmental enrichment: An ecological and evolutionary perspective. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 435-439.

The environmental enrichment program of the Caribbean Primate Research Center is guided by an evolutionary and ecological perspective. The evolutionary perspective suggests that primates should be housed in enclosures that provide a social and physical...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Environmental enhancement plan for previously single-caged adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Technology 43, 115-119.

To promote the well-being of previously single-caged adult (older than 5 years) rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and the quality of research done with them, the following environmental enhancement plan has been developed and implemented at...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Are rhesus macaques really so aggressive? International Zoo News 39(1), 14-19.

Several years of experience with pair housing of previously single-caged adult rhesus macaques and venipuncture in the home cage of cooperative, non-resisting animals lead the author to conclude that rhesus macaques are not as aggressive...

Meder, A. 1992. Effects of the environment on the behaviour of lowland gorillas in zoos. Primate Report 32, 167-183.

The purpose of this study was to observe as many gorilla groups as possible and to compare their behaviour in different exhibits, social structures and visitor situation. Gorillas were studied in 15 zoos, they lived...

Johnstone-Scott, R. 1992. The integration of Julia. International Zoo News 39(6), 18-26.

Successful integration procedure of an adult female gorilla into an established breeding group is described.

Ruppenthal, G. C., Walker, C. G., Sackett, G. P. 1991. Rearing infant monkeys (Macaca nemestrina) in pairs produces deficient social development compared with rearing in single cages. American Journal of Primatology 25, 103-113.

Many scientists and colony managers assume that social housing is a beneficial living condition for all captive primates. Several older studies of primate development question the generality of this assumption. We recently tested this assumption...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 1991. Impact of a privacy panel on the behavior of caged female rhesus monkeys living in pairs. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34(2), 55-58.

Thirty paired female rhesus monkeys were tested in a control situation when companions had no privacy, and in an experimental situation when they were offered the option to move behind a panel and be alone...

Reinhardt, V., Cowley, D., Eisele, S. 1991. Serum cortisol concentrations of single-housed and isosexually pair-housed adult rhesus macaques. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34(2), 73-76.

Possible social distress was evaluated in 20 adult rhesus macaques housed in compatible isosexual pairs (5 female pairs, 5 male pairs) for the purpose of social environmental enrichment. Serum cortisol concentrations of paired animals were...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Social enrichment for aged rhesus monkeys who have lived singly for many years. Animal Technology 43, 173-177.

There is widespread concern that aged rhesus monkeys who have been housed singly for a long time would do better living alone than sharing a cage with a companion. Ten female and five male rhesus...

Reinhardt, V. 1991. Group formation of previously single-caged adult rhesus macaques for the purpose of environmental enrichment. Journal of Experimental Animal Science 34, 110-115.

An attempt was made to form two groups of 6 previously single-caged adult female and 6 previously single-caged adult male rhesus macaques. The study was based on the premise that simultaneous introduction of familiar animals...

Love, J. A., Hammond, K. 1991. Group-housing rabbits. Lab Animal 20(8), 37-43.

The management and success of a group-housing indoor/outdoor pen system for rabbits [mainly females] is described and discussed. Over a three-year study period a total of 141,000 rabbits were included in the assessment. The levels...

Poole, T. B. 1990. Environmental enrichment for marmosets. Animal Technology 41(2), 81-86.

Marmosets are among the easiest of primates to provide with environmental enrichment. Like other higher primates, they need companionship, adequate space with incorporated complexity, some unpredictability in the environment, ways in which they can manipulate...

Reinhardt, V., Houser, W. D., Cowley, D. et al. 1989. Alternatives to single caging of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) used in research. Zeitschrift für Versuchstierkunde [Journal of Experimental Animal Science] 32, 275-279.

Single-housed rhesus macaques were transferred to permanent pair-housing arrangements. The present investigation also demonstrates that pairing caged rhesus monkeys with compatible conspecifics does not interfere with a number of common research protocols [e.g., headcap implantation...

Reinhardt, V. , Dodsworth, R. 1989. Facilitated socialization of previously singly caged adult rhesus macaques (videotape with accompanying text). Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center. Available on loan from Animal Care Audio-Visual Materials, WRPRC, 1220 Capitol Court, Madison, WI 53715, USA, Madison, WI.

Thirty scenes depict different adult rhesus monkeys [and one adult, male stump-tailed macaque], each paired with a compatible companion for up to two years. The following pair combinations and research situations are shown: adult male/male...

Reinhardt, V. 1989. Alternatives to single caging of rhesus monkeys. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 3, 123-125.

Single-housed rhesus macaques were transferred to permanent pair-housing arrangements. The present investigation also demonstrates that pairing caged rhesus monkeys with compatible conspecifics does not interfere with a number of common research protocols [e.g., headcap implantation...

Novak, M. A., Suomi, S. J. 1989. Psychological well-being of primates in captivity. ILAR Journal 31(3), 5-15.

Recent amendments to the Animal Welfare Act will, upon taking effect, require that researchers who maintain nonhuman primates in captivity house their animals in such a way as to “promote their psychological well-being.” Unfortunately, no...

Fajzi, K., Reinhardt, V., Smith, M. D. 1989. A review of environmental enrichment strategies for singly-caged nonhuman primates. Lab Animal 18(2), 23-35.

Comprehensive literature review dealing with the following topics: a) Group housing versus single housing; b) Enrichment strategies using inanimate objects; c) Socialization with conspecifics; d) Role of animal care staff.

Hughes, H. C., Campbell, S., Kenney, C. 1989. The effects of cage size and pair housing on exercise in beagle dogs. Laboratory Animal Science 39, 302-305.

Dogs in the single cage size spent slightly less time moving, but they moved at a greater speed than when housed in double sized cages [probably because of the extreme confinement condition leading to frustration...

Reinhardt, V., Houser, W. D., Eisele, S. et al. 1987. Social enrichment of the environment with infants for singly caged adult rhesus monkeys. Zoo Biology 6, 365-371.

Twenty-nine weaned rhesus monkey infants were removed from breeding troops to avoid overcrowding and were placed with unfamiliar singly caged adults without prior familiarization. Adult-infant pairs were compatible in 90% of cases. Compatibility depended neither...